
Gass /;■ ? ! 



Book 



^8 



STUDIES 



GENERAL HISTORY 



BY ^ 

MARY D. SHELDON,;, 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN AVELLESLEY COLLEGE, AND 

TEACHER OF HISTORY IN OSWEGO NORMAL 

SCHOOL, N.T. 



Stutimt's IStiitton. 



Human affairs are neither to he laughed at nor wept over, hut 
to he understood.'' 



\ 



^ BOSTON: 

D. C. HEATH & COMPAXY, 

1895o 



Copyright, Sept. 30, 1885, 
Bt MARY SHELDON BARNESo 

W, D, Johnston 
7 N'02 



9 






Typography by 

J. S. CUSHliSIG & Co. 
Boston. 



Peesswork by 

Berwick & Smith, 

Boston. 



TO 

MY PUPILS AT WELLESLEY COLLEGE 
AND AT OSWEGO, 

TO WHOSE WARM ENCOURAGEMENT AND SYM- 
PATHY THIS BOOK IS LARGELY DUE, IT 
IS MOST LOVINGLY DEDICATED. 

MABY D. SHELDON. 



THE MAKING OF HISTORY. 



To THE Student ; — 

How, then, is history made? If a man wanted to write the 
history of England, and no one before had ever attempted it, 
so that no books existed from which he could read it, how 
would he go to work to find it out ? He would go to the ' ' origi- 
nal sources," as people say ; that is, he would go to London, 
to Oxford and Cambridge, and hunt through offices, libraries, 
and museums for all the old records, despatches, and letters, 
for reports of parliamentary debates, for the manuscripts of the 
old chroniclers, for copies of treaties and laws ; and from all 
these things he could find what had been the government of 
England, what powers she had, from time to time, given to her 
king, her parliament, and the general mass of her people ; what 
classes of societ}' were recognized by law, and how each class 
was regarded by the government and by other classes. He 
would discover what affairs of national importance had hap- 
pened, what had been the wars of England, and what she had 
deemed worth fighting for ; what nations she had been con- 
nected with, and in what relations. And as he went along, 
he would note down all these things as material for his history. 

Further than this, he would travel England over from end to 
end, and see what sorts of buildings these English had left 
behind them at different times ; he would examine all the old 
cathedrals, castles, and town walls, study the tombs in churches 
and graveyards, look out for all the old bits of painting or 



VI THE MAKING OF HISTORY. 

sculpture still remaining, and thus discover what had been the 
state of material civilization at this or that time, and what prog- 
ress had been made as centuries passed. These old structures 
would tell him what the English knew of building and engineer- 
ing, of working in stone and wood and metal, how much wealth 
they had and how they spent it ; these old bits of architecture, 
painting, and sculpture would tell him what they admired and 
loved as beautiful. 

Not even this would finish his work ; it would be his business 
to read the English poetry and the P^nglish stories, the sermons 
of famous preachers and the speeches of great orators, for 
" out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." In 
this way he would best learn the English character and temper ; 
he would know what they liked and disliked, how they thought 
and felt about all that went on around them. 

Meanwhile, throughout his studies of chronicles, of laws, of 
buildings and writings, he would note what men were oftenest 
mentioned and most highly honored, and thus discover the ideal 
of the English folk, that is, — what sort of men they tried to 
be themselves and wanted their children to become. 

After all these inquiries and labors, our historian would at 
last be ready to sit down peacefully and write a history of Eng- 
land ; that is, he would embody in a continuous narrative all 
that he knew of the growth, development, and character of the 
English people ; if his judgment were perfect, if he were a 
man without prejudice and with a perfect sense of the relative 
value of facts, if he knew how to tell what he knew so that 
all men could read and understand, and if, at last, he lived to 
complete his work, no one would care to write a second serious 
history of England. Such a work would be unnecessary ; it 
would be easier far for a man to read this history, even if it 



THE MAKING OF HISTORY. vii 

were rather dr}^, than to go searching through yellow, dusty, and 
badly written manuscripts, through the heavy statute-books, 
and through volumes of half -forgotten literature, to say nothing 
of traveling over England, exploring all the old remains and 
monuments. But since men's judgments widely var}^ and since 
the observation of any single mind is imperfect, the work must 
be done again and again, and that, too, from the original 
sources, by different men with all their different points of view 
and different bents of genius. By reading and comparing 
these various histories, which would still be easier far than to 
make one for one's self, we should get a just idea of the 
history of England. 

We Americans are situated something like the man who has a 
history to write from original sources. We are called upon every 
day to judge of laws, of men, of events, of poems and stories, 
to decide between them, to see what they mean and where they 
are leading us ; and since we are citizens of a republic, we must 
not only see what they mean and where they are leading us, 
but decide whether these laws shall become the laws of the 
land, whether these poems and stories shall become popular 
among us and so come to mark our character, whether we shall 
make this man or that great and powerful among us. In short, 
we Americans are all making history — an American history, 
of a sort that no man has ever made before us, and which 
lies entirel}' in our own hands to shape according to our best 
judgment of all that goes on about us from year to year. 

Now this book is not a history, but a collection of historical 
materials ; it contains just the sort of things that historians 
must deal with when they want to describe or judge any period 
of history, and just the kind of things, moreover, which we 
Americans must constantly attend to and think about. In 



Vlll THE MAKING OF HISTORY. 

Greek history, it gives bare chronicles of deeds, pictures of 
buildings and statues, extracts from speeches, laws, poems ; from 
these materials you must form 3onr own judgment of the Greeks, 
discover their style of thinking, acting, living, feeling ; you 
must, in short, imagine that you yourself are to write a Greek 
history, or that you are a Greek citizen, called upon to judge 
of the life about you. To help you in this, I have inserted 
in the midst of the material such questions and problems as 
the historian or citizen must always be asking himself, or 
rather must always be putting to the laws, events, poetry, and 
ruins which he studies, whether they belong to times and 
peoples far away or near at hand. In this wa^', you can 
learn how to judge and interpret what you see before you in 
your own country, and help to make of America that which 
she may become, — the strongest, noblest, finest nation in all 
the world. 

Hoping that you will take kindly to this new way of studying 
history, I am 

Very cordially and sincerely your friend, 

MARY D. SHELDON. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



literatur 



Peeface 

Civilized World before 776 B.C. 
Introductory .... 

A. Study on Egypt 

Historical sources and authorities 
Organization .... 
Leading events, works, and names 

Meniphite period 

Theban period . 
List of objects found in tombs 
Illustrative extracts from Egyptian 

B. Study on Tigro-Euphrates Valley 

Historical sources and authorities 
Periods of history . 
Leading events, works, and names 
Illustrative extracts from Assyrian and Babyl 
remains . o . . 

C. Study on Phoenicia . 

Historical authorities 

Leading events, works, and names 

Illustrative extracts 

D. Study on the Jews . 

Historical sources and authorities 

Periods of history . 

Leading events, names, and works 

Illustrative extracts from Bible 
Hellas, 1000 (?)-338 b.c. . 

Introductory .... 
A. Study on Heroic Age 

Historical sources and authorities 

Famous events, men, and works of Her 

List of Greek gods, with attributes 

Illustrative extracts from Homer . 



Age 



PAGE. 

v-viii 

3-29 

3 

4-16 

4 

4-5 

5-6 

5 

6 

7 

9-15 

16-23 

16 

16 

16-18 

18-22 

23-25 

23 

23-24 

24-25 

25-29 

25 

25 

26 

27-29 

32-118 

32-33 

33-47 

33 

33-36 

36 

37-47 



STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. 



II. 



III. 



B. Study on Historic Greece, 776-500 . 

Historical sources and authorities 

I. General Hellenic development 

Organization of people 

Leading events 

Famous names and works . 
Illustrative extracts from original sources 
Constitution and laws of Sparta . 
Spartan constitution .... 
Institutions of Lycurgus, with illustrative 
tracts and stories .... 
Development of Athenian constitution . 
Athens before Solon .... 

Constitution 

Legislation of Solon .... 
Constitution . . • . . 
Tyranny of Pisistratids 
Legislation of Cleisthenes . 

Constitution 

C. Study on Persian Wars .... 

Original authorities 

I. First Persian War (abridged from Herodotus) 

II. Interval of Preparation (abridged from Hero- 

dotus) 

III. Second Persian War (abridged from Herodotus), 

D. Study on the Athenian Leadership or the Age 

OF Pericles 

Historical sources and authorities .... 

Sunnnary of leading events 

List of famous names and works . . . . 

Illustrative extracts and stories from original sources, 

E.F. Spartan, Theban, and Macedonian Leaderships, 

431-338 B.c 

Historical sources and authorities .... 

Summary of leading events 

Hellenistic or Alexandrian Conquests and King- 
doms 

Historical sources and authorities .... 

Summary of leading events 

List of famous names and works .... 



PAGE. 

47-72 

47 

48-56 

48 

49-50 

51-53 

53-56 

56-60 

57 

58-60 
61-72 
61-63 

63 
63-65 

64 
65-69 
69-71 
70-71 
72-87 

72 
73-76 

76-80 
80-87 

87-113 

87 

89-96 

96-101 

102-112 

113-117 

113 

113-117 

119-127 

119 

119-121 

122-126 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi 

PAGB 

Rome , 129-285 

Introductory 129-130 

A.B. I. Study of Regal Rome and Pr^-Punic Re- 
public 130-151 

Organization and constitutions 130-136 

Illustrative extract from Livy 136-137 

Summary of leading events . . . . . 137-140 

Notable works and innovations of period . . . 140-113 

List of religious feasts 143-144 

Remains of Twelve Tables 145-146 

Illustrative stories from Livy 147-151 

B. II. Study on Republican Rome, Punic Period . 152-169 

Authorities 152 

Note on Carthage 152 

Summary of events, 265-201 b.c 153-155 

Summary of events, 201-146 b.c. * . . . . 155-158 

Extracts from Livy illustrative of Second Punic War, 158-162 

List of famous men, deeds, and works . . . 162-163 
Incidents, extracts, and facts illustrative of later Punic 

period . 164-169 

B. IIL Study on Republican Rome, Post-Punic 

.Period 170-189 

Authorities 170 

Summaries of events 170-175 

List of famous men, works, and deeds . . . 175-176 

Illustrative extracts from original sources . . . 177-189 

C. I. Study on Pagan Empire, Augustus to Diocle- 

tian 192-221 

Authorities 192 

Imperial organization according to Augustus . . 193-195 

List of emperors, events, and works .... 196-205 

List of famous imperial works and names . . . 206-211 

Extracts from original sources illustrative of period . 212-221 

The Teutonic Barbarians before 476 a.d. . . . 222-227 

Authorities 222 

Teutonic land-tenure 222 

Extracts from " Germania " of Tacitus . . . 222-225 

Extracts from Teutonic sources 226 

C. II. Christian Empire, Constantine to Charlemagne, 228-285 

Authorities 228 



Xll STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

PAGE. 

A. Christian Empire under Roman Control . . 229-250 

Imperial organization 229-231 

Summary of leading events 281-235 

List of famous names 236-240 

Significant laws and customs 242-244 

Illustrative extracts from contemporary sources . 244-250 

B. and C. The West under Barbarian Control; Em- 

pire OF Charlemagne 250-286 

Summary of events 250-255 

List of famous names and works .... 258-264 

Significant laws and customs ..... 267-270 
Extracts from contemporary sources illustrative of 

Christian empire 270-275 

Extracts illustrative of first century of Islam . . 276-280 
Extracts illustrative of Islam in eighth and ninth 

centuries 281-285 

European History, 814-1880 286-539 

Introductory 286 

A. Early Medieval Period; Charlemagne to the 

Crusades, 814-1095 286-318 

Historical sources and authorities .... 286 

Organizations of period (feudal) .... 287-291 

Summary of leading events 293-299 

Lists of great names and works of period . . . 300-309 
Extracts and stories illustrative of European life of 

the period ....... 310-314 

Facts and stories illustrative of Islam . . . 315-318 

B. Study on Crusading Period, 1095-1215 . . . 318-335 

Historical authorities and sources . . . . 318 

Summary of leading events ..... 319-324 

List of famous names and works of twelfth century . 325-329 

Extract and stories illustrative of period . . . 329-335 

C. Study on Later Medieval Period . . . 336-395 

Historical authorities and sources .... 336 

Organizations of period ; state, church, guild, town . 336-342 

Summary of leading events ..... 343-353 
List of famous names, works, foundations, enterprises, 

etc., of the period 353-370 

Extracts and notes illustrative of law, custom, and 

organization of period 378-395 






TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



xm 



D. Renaissance and Reformation Era, 1492-1648 

(1649 in England) 396-438 

Introductory 396 

Historical source and authorities .... 396-397 
Events and movements of period .... 398-410 
List of famous works, structures, foundations, inven- 
tions, discoveries, etc., of period . . . 410-420 
Contemporary extracts illustrative of life and thought 

of the time ....... 421-438 

E. Modern Europe 438-538 

I. The "Old Regime," 1648-1789; Peace of West- 

phalia TO French Revolution . . . 438-474 

Aa. In Europe in general 438-459 

Historical sources and authorities . . . 438-439 

Summary of leading events .... 439-451 
Famous works, foundations, enterprises, etc., of 

period 451-458 

Ah. Special study of " Old Regime " in France . . 459-474 

Historical sources and authorities . . . 459 

Organization of France 460-461 

Extracts illustrative of organization . . . 462-465 

Attempted reforms 465-466 

Extracts from contemporary sources illustrative 

of life of period 466-469 

Extracts illustrative of thought and feeling . 470-474 

II. French Revolution and Wars of Napoleon . 474-491 

Historical sources and authorities .... 474 

Summary of leading events 475-484 

Special study of the Prussian leadership and the 

Prussian revolution ...... 486-491 

III. The Nineteenth Century 491-538 

Historical sources and authorities .... 491 
Constitutions of modern states; England, France, 

Germany 492-500 

General summary of events 501-514 

Special study on development of the German Empire, 514-525 

Special study on development of Italy . . . 525-533 

Special study on socialism . , . . . 534-539 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 



Pyramids of Ghizeh (gee'-za) . 

Court of Temple of the Sun at Karnak 

Colossus of Rameses II. . 

The Sun-god Ra (ra) 

Winged figure from a gate at Nimroud 

Lion-gate at Mycensft (mi-see'-nee) 

Parthenon 

Sculpture from Parthenon frieze . 
Mosaic floor pattern from Olympia 
Zeus of Phidias . , . . 
Venus of Me'-los .... 
Etruscan wall at Volterra 
Koman wall of the kings 
Part of Claudian aqueduct 

Colise'-um 

Trajan and the lictors 

Mosaic from baths of Caracalla 

Pantheon of Agrippa 

Relief from Christian sarcophagus of fourth century 

Church of St. Sophia 

Legend of St, Martin of Tours (toor) ; tapestry 

Mosaic of tenth century ; temporal and spiritual 

Interior of mosque at Cordova 

Feudal interior ; serfs receiving orders from their 

St. Mark's, Venice 

Detail of Ducal palace, Venice 

Facade of Ducal palace 

Cathedral of Amiens, France 

Interior of Cologne cathedral 

Portal of Notre Dame (notreh-dahm') of Paris 

Monastery court at Pavia .... 

Castle of Pierrefonds (pe'-air-fond) near Paris 



power! 



lord 



XVI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 



33. Castle of St. Ulric, on the Rhine . 

34. Cloth hall at Ypres (ee'-p'r) . ... 

35. Renaissance frieze-pattern from Venetian church 

36. Fountains hall, Yorkshire .... 

37. Court of Borghese (borga'-zeh) palace, Rome 

38. The Escorial 

39. St. Peter's 

40. Bird's-eye view of Versailles (ver-salz') 



376 
377 

398 
413 
415 
416 
417 
457 



LIST OF MAPS. 

1. Mediterranean lands before 776 b.c. 

2. Greece, with shores and islands of the ^Egean 

3. Greece and the Greek colonies {Freeman) 

4. Attica 

5. Persian, afterward Macedonian empire 

6. Thermopylae 

7. Italy 

8. Mediterranean lands, 218 b.c. . . .. 

9. Mediterranean lands, 146 B.C. ... 

10. Roman empire under Trajan ... 

11. Europe in the time of Theodoric {Freeman) 

12. Europe in the time of Charlemagne {Freeman) 

13. England about 600 a.d 

14. Europe in the twelfth century (crusading era) 

15. Western Europe in fourteenth century (1360) {Fi 

16. Western Europe in time of Charles V. {Freeman] 

17. Western Europe in 1648, Treaty of Westphalia 

18. Empire of Napoleon ; Europe in 1810 {Freeman) 

19. Europe in 1815, Peace of Vienna {Freeman) 

20. Turkish dominion in Europe before and after 

Berlin ....... 

21. Europe at the present day .... 

22. The World at the present day 

23. Italy in 1815 ... • • 



eeman) 



2 

30-31 

44-45 

66 

74 

81 

128 

152 

157 

190-191 

252-253 

256-257 

. 299 

316-317 

347 

397 

402 

482 

485 



Treaty of 



. 505 
516-517 
520-521 

. 524 



Prof. P. V. N. Myers, who was so fortunate as to obtain the right 
to use Mr. Freeman's most admirable maps in the preparation of his 
" Outlines of Mediaeval and Modern History," has been so kind as to 
share with me the benefits of that permission. m. s. b. 



STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY 




MAP OF LANDS OP MEDITERRANEAN BEFORE 776 B.G 



PAGE 3 



STUDIES IN CjENEEAL HISTORY. 



3>®^C 



THE CIVILIZED WORLD BEFORE 776" B.O 

A. Egypt. 

B. The Tigro-Euphrates Valley. 

C. Phcsn/'cia. 

D. Judaea. 

" I met a traveller from an antique land 
Who said : Two vast and trunkless legs of stone 
Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand, 
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies. . . . 
********* 
And en the pedestal, these words ajjpear : 
My name is Ozymandias, king of kings ; 
Look on my works, ye mighty, and desj^air! 
Nothing beside remains. Kound the decay 
Of that colossal wreck, boundless .aid bare, 
The lone and level sands stretch far away." — Shelley. 



Note on Map. — The valleys of the Nile, ^f the Tigris, and Eu> 
phrates were famous for their heavy yield of wheat. Their soil was 
fertile, level, and watered and fertilized by the overflow or the irriga- 
tion from their respective rivers. The cities of Lilybseum, Panormus, 
and Carthage were fomided by Phoenicians, who also liad iii Spain two 
famous colonies ; namely, Gades (Cadiz) and Tartessus (Tarshish), 
both of which were on the coast, near Gibraltar. 

Questions on Map and Note. — How was Egypt naturally pro- 
tected from invasion ? How could she feed a large population ? How 
did these two facts help develop an early civilization ? What would 
be the chief natural occupation and support of her people? Answer 
the same questions in regard to Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea. 



4: STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

How were Phoenicia and Judaea protected? Which of the civilized 
people of that time were sailors ? What great cities now stand at or 
near the same foundations as those given on the map? In what 
latitude did civilization arise ? What reason for this ? What reasons 
can you give why Southern Europe was civilized before N'orthern ? 
What part of it would first become civilized, and why? How is 
Southern Europe protected from invasion ? 



A. STUDY ON EGYPT. 

Chief contemporary sources of its history : the Pyramids, 
the temples of Karnak, and other remains near or at the 
site of Thebes ; the contents and inscriptions of the tombs 
near Memphis, Thebes, and elsewhere. 

Other original sources : Old Testament, Herodotus, 
Manetho, Records of the Past (Eng. trans, of inscriptions). 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Wilkin- 
son, Bunsen, Duncker, Brugsch, Rawlinson, Lenormant, 
Chevallier, Sayce, Birch, Marie tte. 

1. Classes of People in Egypt, 

King, who divides the land, makes the laws, decides on 
war or peace, appoints and removes judges, generals, and 
all officers in general; he is believed to be son of the 
chief deity while living, and is himself worshipped as a 
deity when dead ; he leads the army in war, is one of the 
chief priests of the land, directs the making and building 
of roads, canals, cities, temples, palaces. 

Priests, who hold government offices, have entire charge 
of religion and education, hold one-third of the land of 
Egypt, pay no taxes. The chief high priest is second to 
the king. 

"Warriors or Nobles, who hold government offices, hold 
about a third of the land, pay no taxes, aid the king in war. 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 5 

Country Laborers, who work the land of the priests and 
nobles, are sold witli it, pay heavy taxes, and are forced 
to work on canals, roads, temples and palaces, when 
ordered by the king. 

Tradesmen and Artisans of the towns. 



2. Leading Periods of Egyx>tian History ^ tvith Chief 
Events, Works, cmd Na^nes of Each Period, 

Old and Middle Empires of Egypt. — Clieops 

(Khufu), king of Memphis, builds the Grreat 
Pyramid of Ghizeh, near Memphis, for his tomb 



4000 (?)i 

TO 

3000 (?) 



(see picture, p. 8). Other kings build the second and third 
pyramids, the sphinx^^ and the temple of the sphinx. 
From this time dates the " Book of the Dead," a book of 
directions for the soul after death, written by the priests ; 
and a book on morals and manners, by the Memphite 
prince, Ptah-hotep. 

In the hitter part of this time the famous Lake Moeris 
is constructed, — an enormous artificial reservoir for re- 
taining and evenly distributing through the country, by 
means of irrigating canals, the overflow of the Nile. With 
this is connected the necessary canal, and a protecting 
dyke twenty-seven miles long ; the necessary sluices and 
flood-gates, and a Nilometer for measuring the height of 
the river. The so-called " Labyrinth," in some way con- 
nected with religion, is also built. All these works are 
begun and carried through by kings ruling at Thebes. 

1 The (?) placed after a date or a statement implies that the date or 
the statement is disputed or approximate. 

2 The sphinx is a colossal crouching figure, half beast, half man, near 
the Great Pyramid. It is cut from the solid rock, and nearly 200 ft. in 
length. The head alone measures about 30 ft. from the top of the fore- 
head to the bottom of the chin. It is a symbol of the sun-god. 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



3000 (?) 

TO 
1600 (?) 



1600 (?) 
TO 

1350 (?) 



The Hyksos, or shepherd kings, foreigners from 
Syria or Arabia, hold the country. Under them the 
Jews (Jacob and his sons) probably enter Egypt. 

New Empire, centering at Thebes. — The The- 
ban kings expel the shepherds, and rule the whole 
of Egypt. Under their eighteenth and nineteenth 
dynasties, conquests are made in Phoenicia, Palestine, 
Mesopotamia, Nubia. The horse and chariot are brought 
into Egypt from Asia. In the latter part of the period, 
the Exodus of the Jews takes place. Thothmes III. 
(eighteenth dynasty) builds magnificent temples at Mem- 
phis, Thebes, and at Karnak and Luxor, near Thebes, and 
is a famous conqueror. About 1400, the colossi of Mem- 
non are made, sitting monolithic statues of the reigning 
king, more than sixty feet high. The father of Rameses 
II. causes old gold mines to be reop^ened and worked, and 
builds the Great Hall of the temple at Karnak. This 
" Hall of Columns " is composed of 134 stone pillars, and 
covers a larger area than Cologne Cathedral. The col- 
umns at Karnak, many of them, are 62 ft. high and 33 ft. 
around; many others are 45 ft. high and 27 or 28 ft. in cir- 
cumference. One of these columns fell against another, 
but neither injured nor shook it ; both yet remain, one 
bearing the other. The ceiling of the temj^le was com- 
j)osed of single stones, extending from column to column. 
Rameses IL, wlio was known as Sesostris to the Greeks, 
opens a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, maintains a 
fleet, builds cities and temples, erects obelisks and statues 
to himself and the gods, establishes a royal library under 
the care of the priests, in which are the works of his- 
torians, moralists, philosophers, poets, and novelists. 

Decline of Egyptian power ; final conquest of 
Egypt by the Persians, in 527. 



1250 (?) 
TO 
537. 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 7 

3o List of Objects found witJihi or represented upon 
Egyptian Tombs, 

a. From all Periods. — Mummies^ or the bodies of the 
dead preserved in natron, bitumen, spices, oils, gums and 
aromatics, and wrapped about with linen bandages of all 
degrees of fineness, the whole enclosed in a wooden coffin, 
shaped like the body, painted and ornamented according 
to the means of its owner; sarcophagi^ or stone cases of 
granite, alabaster, or other fine stone, variously engraved 
and carved, each containing within it mummy and mummy- 
case ; pap^ri^ or manuscripts written on paper made from 
the papyrus reed, which grew in ancient Egypt; wooden 
plows and hoes ; boats with oars, and with plain or em- 
broidered sails ; oxen, asses, sheep, goats, pigs, poidtry ; 
trained grape-vines ; statuettes and amulets of alabaster, 
of glazed and unglazed potter}^, and opaque glass ; jewelry 
of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones. 

b. From Thebaii Period. — V»^&r-horses and chariots ; all 
sorts of weapons, spears, javelins, arroAA^s, clubs, frequently 
of bronze ; saws, mallets, chisels, frequently of bronze ; 
looms, embroidered linen robes ; many sorts of musical 
instruments, leather sandals, chairs, stools, floAver-stands, 
couches, perfumery bottles. 

STUDY ON I, 2, AND 3. 

Who held the central political and military power in ancient 
Egypt? Prove it from 1 and 2. What helief confirmed this power? 
What classes Avere aristocrats ? Of what nse Avas each class ? What 
class supported the rest? What class Avas oppressed, and hoAv? 
What name do you giA-e to such a form of goA^ernment ? Of society ? 
What classes Avould support this form of government and society? 
What seem to have been the chief desires of the Memphite kings ? Of 
the Theban ? On whom did Egypt depend for her success in Avar and 
commerce, and her glory in ciA'ilization ? What does the absence of 



8 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

monuments and records under tlie Hyksos kings seem to indicate 
about them? Make a list of the arts known among the Egyptians; 
of the occupations; of the different sorts of knowledge. Of these, 




THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH. 



which specially belonged to the Theban pei-iod ? What tell us about 
these things? What position gave a man the chance for greatness, 
and how could he achieve it? 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 



4. Pictures and Extracts Illustrative of Egyptian 
Civilization, 

Note on Pyramids. — Of the sixty or seventy pyramids in Egypt, 
the most famous is the Pyramid-group of Ghizeh; and of this group, 
the Great Pyramid is the most wonderful. Its original height, ap- 
proaching 500 ft., was greater than that of any other structure, and it 
covers an area of more than thirteen acres. Many of the basement 
stones are thirty feet long, and nearly five feet high, and, even to the 
top of the pyramid, the mass of single stones is great. These stones 




COURT OP TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT KARNAK, BUILT BY RAMESES III 



are united by a cement harder than themselves, and by joints as thin as 
a sheet of paper. Within the pyramid are three sepulchral chambers, 
to which access is had by long galleries. The chief of these is the 
King's Chamber, where the sarcophagus of the builder of the pyramid 
was found. This room is made wholly of finely polished granite, 
whose great blocks were brought down the Nile from quarries more 
than 500 miles away. In order to lighten the weight of masonry uj)on 
its roof, five low chambers are constructed above it ; to ventilate it, 



10 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

two small passages lead from it to tlie outside air, through the solid 
masses of the pyramid. The cutting and polishing of its stones is 
equal to any work that can be produced to-day, with the best perfected 
tools. Much of its stone was brought from the Arabian quarries, and 
the causeway on which it was brought from the Nile to the pyramids 
is still to be traced for a good distance. 

EXTRACTS. 

From the " Booh of the Dead.'' 

When the deceased was brought before Osiris, the judge of 
the dead, he was questioned as to his wliole past life. In reply 
he should be able to answer : " I have not blasphemed ; I have 
not deceived ; I have not stolen ; I have not slain any one 
treacherously ; I have not been cruel to any one ; I have not 
caused disturbance ; I have not been idle ; 1 have not been 
drunken ; I have not issued unjust orders ; I have not been 
indiscreeth^ curious ; I have not multiplied words in speaking ; 
I have struck no one ; I have caused fear to no one ; I have 
not eaten my heart through envy ; 1 have not reviled the face 
of the king, nor the face of my father. ... I have not ill-used 
m}^ slaves ; I have not killed sacred beasts ; I have not defiled 
the river. ... I have made it my delight to do what men com- 
mand, and the gods approve. I have offered to the deities all 
the sacrifices that were their due ; I have given bread to the 
hungry and drink to him that was athirst ; I have clothed the 
naked with garments. . . ." Could the deceased thus justify 
himself, he was allowed to pass on his way toward Elysium. 

From a Prayer to the Chief God. (Memphite period.) 

"Hail to thee. Lord of truth! ... at whose command the 
gods were made ; . . . the maker of men ; that snpportest their 
works, that givest them life ; . . . that listenest to the poor who 
is in distress ; that art gentle of heart when a man crieth unto 
thee ; thou who deliverest the fearful man from the violent ; 
who judgest the poor and oppressed ; Lord of wisdom ... at 
whose pleasure the Nile overflows her banks ; Lord of mercy, 
most loving, at whose coming men live ; . . . cause of pleasure 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 



11 




THE COLOSSUS OP RAMESES II. ' 

This colossus is nearly seventy feet in heisrht: it is one of four, cut from the solid rock, 
that guard the entrance to the rock-hewn temple of losambouL in Nubia. 



12 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

and light, at whose goodness the gods rejoice, their hearts 
reviving when they see Thee." 

From the Precepts of Prince Ptah-Jiotep. 

" The obedience of a docile son is a blessing. . . . The son 
who accepts the words of his father will grow old on account of 
it. For obedience is of God, disobedience is hateful to God. 
. . . Fulfil the word of thy master. . . . The obedient will be 
happy through his obedience ; he will attain old age, he will 
acquire favor. I have m3-self in this way become one of the 
ancients of the earth ; I have passed one hundred and ten 
years of life by the gift of the King . . . fulfilling my duty to 
the King in the place of his favor." 

Fro7n a Hymn to the Mle, of the Time of Ecnneses II. 
Hail to thee, O Nile ! 
Thou showest thyself in this laud, 
Coming in peace, giving life to Egypt : 

Overflowing tlie gardens created by Ra ; ^ 
Giving life to all animals ; 
Waterino- the land without ceasing : 

Lover of food, bestower of corn, 
Giving light to every home . . . ! 

Thou shine st in the city of the King ; 

Then the house-holders are satiated with good things ; 

The poor man laughs at the lotus.- 

All things are perfectly ordered, — 

Every kind of herb for thy children. 

If food should fail. 

All enjoyment is cast on the ground. 

The land falls in weariness. 



1 Ra, the chief sun-god. 

'- Whicli he ate wlien lie could get nothing else. 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 



13 



Shine forth, shine forth, O Nile ! shine forth ! 
Giving life to men by his oxen : 
Giving life to his oxen by the pastures ! 
Shine forth in glory, O Nile. 



From a Prayer to the Sun. (Theban period.) 

" Thou Disk of the sun, thou living god, there is none other 
beside thee ! thou givest health to the eyes. . . . Creator of all 
beings. Thou goest up in the eastern 
horizon of the heaven, to dispense 
life to all which thou hast created, — 
man . . . beasts, birds, and creeping- 
things of the earth . . . and they go 
to sleep when thou settest." //MMLwjjL^ > . 

From a Prayer of Pameses, ivhen hard 

pressed in Battle. 

"I call on thee, ray father Ammon^ ; 
I am amid multitudes unknown, na- 
tions gathered against me : I am 
alone, no other with me ; my foot and 
horse have left me. I called aloud to 
them, none of them heard. I find 
Ammon worth more than millions of 
soldiers, thousands of cavalry, . . . 
were they gathered all in one. No 
works of many men avail, Ammon 
against them. . . . My cry rang unto Hermonthis ; Ra heard when 
I called, he put his hand to me ; I was glad ; he called to me : 
'- Rameses, I am with thee, I thy father Ra ; my hand is with 
thee. I am worth to thee myriads joined in one ; I am sovran 
lord of victory, loving valor ; if I find courage, my heart over- 
flows with joy; all m}' doing is fulfilled.'" "Then," adds 
Rameses, " not one of them joined his hand to fight, their heart 




EGYPTIAN REPRESENTATION OP 
THE SUN-GOD RA. 



God of heaven, afterward united with Ra, the sun-god. 



14 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

shrank within them ; . . . I slew them ; . . . none escaped me ; 
. . . Amnion brings very low them that know not God." 

From an Insci^ijMon concerning Raineses. 

" Prince, Sovran Lord . . . who can soothe thee in the day of 
thy wrath ? . . . Dread of his might is in every heart, he protects 
his army, all nations come to the great name, falling down and 
adoring his noble countenance." 

The following is from an inscription regarding another The- 
ban king : — 

" Then came the prince Pefaabast, with tributes to the 
reigning Pharaoh of gold, silver, and all precious stones, with 
steeds the choicest of his stud. He threw himself prostrate 
before the king and said, ' Hail to thee, Horus, sacred majesty ! 
. . . Hades has seized me. I am immersed in darkness ! Give 
me light, I pray thee. I have not found a friend in the evil 
time standing by me in the day of battle, save thee only, O King, 
Do thou lift the darkness from me. I am thy slave, together 
with all my subjects, attached to thy royal apartments : thou 
glorious image of the sun, ruling over the indestructible con- 
stellations ! While he exists thou existest, as he is indestructi- 
ble thou art indestructible, O King of all Egypt, living for 
evermore.' " 

And again : " Corn is brought as an offering to thee ; it is in 
its season : do not destroy the tree together with its fruit. All 
hail to thee ! Th}' terror is in my body ; thy fright is in my 
teeth ! I sit not in the house of feasting ; the harp is not 
brought to me ; lo, I eat the bread of hunger and drink in 
thirst. For since the day thou heardest my name terror is in 
my bones, my head is untrimmed, my garments are squalid." 

From a Writer of the Time of Rameses II. 

" Have you ever represented to ^^onrself the state of the rustic 
who tills the ground? Before he has put the sickle to the crop, 
the locusts have blasted a part of it ; then come the rats and 
the birds. . . . Anon, the tax-gatherer arrives, his agents are 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 15 

armed with clubs ; he has negroes with him who carry whips 
of palm branches. They all cry ' Give us your grain ! ' and he 
has no eas}^ wa}' of avoiding their extortionate demands. Next, 
the wretch is caught, bound and sent off to work without wages 
at the canals ; his wife is taken and chained ; his children are 
stripped and plundered." 

From a Writer of the Time of TJiothmes III. — accompanying 

the picture of a taskmaster armed with a stick, who thus 

addresses the laborers : — 

"The stick is in my hand. Be not idle." 

" Here are to be seen the prisoners, which have been carried 
away as living captives in very great numbers ; they work at 
the building with active fingers ; their overseers are in sight ; 
these insist with vehemence (on the others) obeying the 
orders of the great skilled lord (head-architect) who prescribes 
to them the works ; . . . they are rewarded with wine and all 
kinds of good dishes ; they perform their service with a mind 
full of love for the king ; they build for Thothmes ... a Holy 
of Holies for the gods. May it be rewarded to him through a 
range of years." 

STUDY ON 4. 

What qualities did the Egyptians evidently admire in architecture 
and sculpture? (See text of 2, as well as pictures.) Make a list of all 
the arts and sciences that are indicated by the pictures. (See notes 
also.) What did the Egyptians believe in regard to the immortality 
of the soul? Of the body? What did they believe of the nature of 
deity ? Of the number of deities ? Of their relative rank ? Of the 
moral duties of man? What moral duties stood highest in their re- 
gard ? Any relation between this and their form of government ? In 
their religious life how was human equality regarded ? 

AVhat reasons had they for thinking the sun divine ? The Nile ? 
How could their gods be reached and pleased? Judging from the 
sphinx and the picture of the sun-god (p. 13), what peculiarity was 
there in the Egyptian representation of deity ? What proof have we 
that the Egyptians believed that the gods could and would interfere 
with and direct human affairs? 



16 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOllY, 

What was true of liberty among the Egyptians? Of equality? 
Prove it from 1 and 4. What was the Egyptian ideal of manhood? 
What right had the Egyptians to be called civilized ? What superior 
right have we? What Egyptians were uncivilized? 



B. STUDY m THE TiaEO-EUPHEATES VALLEY. 

Chief contemporary and original sources of history: The 
ruins of the palaces of Nineveh and Babylon ; cuneiform 
inscriptions on brick cylinders and tablets^; the Hebrew 
scriptures of the Old Testament ; and the fragments of 
Berosus, Records of the Past (see page 4). 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Rawlin- 
son, Smith, Layard, Birch, Lenormant, Sayce, Duncker. 

Periods of History (all dates B.C.)- 

Dynasties ruling at or near Babylon in chief power, 4000 (?) - 

1250 (?). 
Assyrian dynasties ruling at or near Nineveh in chief power, 

1250 (?)- 625 (?). 
Nineveh destroyed by Babylonians and Medes, 625 (?). 
Babylon chief power of the valley, 625 (?) -538. ^ 

Babylon conquered by the Persians, 538. 

1. Leading Events, Works, and Katnes in the History of 
* Babylonia and Assyria, 

Observations made at or near Babylon on stars, 
comets, planets, on the sun and moon ; stars 
named, length and divisions of the year deter- 
mined, zodiac described and divided ; calendar formed, 

1 The brick cylinders and tablets were the Assyrian books ; the law, 
record, or story, to be preserved, was written in cuneiform (wedge-shaped) 
characters, on a clay surface, from which, wlien hard, a number of dupli- 
cate impressions might be made. Thousands of these clay records have 
been found, and are being deciphered. 



4000 (?) 

TO 

1350 (?) 



1350 (?) 

TO 

r,25 ( ?) 



STUDY ON THE TIGRO-EUPHRArES VALLEY. 17 

eclipses observed and piedicted. Canals built, and an 
embankment for the Tigris made ; a library founded, in 
which are many books (of clay) on astronomy and as- 
trolog}^ About 1900, Nineveh founded by settlers from 
Babylonia. 

Tiglath-Pileser I., Assyrian king, conquers 
territory in every direction, and rules frum the 
Mediterranean to the Caspian ; Sardanapalus 
(Assur-natzir-pal), a great warrior, conquers most of Phoe- 
nicia ; builds a great palace near Nineveh. Shalmaneser 
II., a great warrior, builds himself a splendid palace near 
Nineveh. Tigiath-Pileser II. temporarily conquers Phoe- 
nicia, Palestine, Syria. Sargon conquers Samaria and 
Judsea, builds a new city with palaces and temples. Sen- 
nacherib, a great warrior, maintains a fleet, founds Tarsus, 
constructs canals and aqueducts, builds himself a grand 
palace at Nineveh. Esarhaddon, a great warrior, holds 
Phoenicia, Syria, and Judah in tribute ; conqueife Egypt , 
begins the walls of Babylon. Sardanapalus II. (Asshur- 
bani-pal) subdues Egypt and various neighboring territo- 
ries ; builds at Nineveh the most magnificent of Assyrian 
palaces, and establishes a royal library, in which are found 
treatises on grammar, dictionaries of native languages, 
laws, collections of hymns, lists of plants, minerals, and 
animals ; many books on arithmetic ; catalogues of obser- 
vations on the stars, planets, sun, and moon. 

Nineveh destroyed by Babylonians and Medes. | 635 (?) | 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, conquers Jerusalem, 
Egypt, Syria, and Phoenicia ; builds a great pal- 
ace, and the famous "hanging gardens " at Baby- 
lon ; surrounds his city by walls, reckoned as one 



635 ( ?) 

TO 

538. 



of the wonders of the world for their thickness, strength, 
and height. He completes the quays of the Euphrates, 
re-opens a royal canal, constructs a great lake as an arti- 



18 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

ficial reservoir for watering the plain, and establishes a 
harbor city for Babylon at the mouth of the Euphrates. 

2. Extracts Illustrative of Ass j/rio- Babylonian History, 
taken from the Inscrij^tions of Various Monarchs, 

From Tiglath-Fileser I., about 1120. 

" Tiglath-Pileser, the powerful King ; supreme King of vari- 
ous tongues ; King of ah Kings ; Lord of Lords ; the Supreme ; 
Monarch of Monarchs ; the illustrious Chief, who under the 
auspices of the Sun God, being armed with the sceptre and girt 
with the girdle of power over mankind, rules over all the people 
of BeL^ . . . With a host of kings I have fought . . .- and have 
imposed on them the bond of servitude. There is not to me a 
second in war nor an equal in battle. I have added territory to 
Assyria and peoples to her people. ... I conquered the whole 
country of Comukha. I plundered their movables, their wealth, 
and their valuables. Their cities I burnt with fire, I destroyed 
them and ruined them. ... I took the entire country of Sugi. 
Twenty-five of their gods, their movables, their wealth, and 
their valuables I carried off. All of their cities I burnt with 
fire, I destroyed and overthrew. The men of their armies sub- 
mitted to my yoke. I had mercy on them. I imposed on them 
tribute and offerings. Among the subjects of Asshur,- my 
Lord, I reckoned them. ..." 

From Esar-liaddon. 

" In a fortunate month, and a lucky day, T began to build 
great palaces for the residence of my Majesty upon that mound. 
Bulls and lions, carved in stone, which, with their majestic 
mien, deter wicked enemies from approaching, right and left 
1 placed them at the gates. 

1 Bel, or Baal, one of the chief Assyrian gods. 

2 Asshur, or Assur, one of the oldest Assyrian gods. 



STUDY ON THE TIGRO-EUPHRATES YALLEY. 



19 



"Winged lionesses of bronze I placed within. Of fine 
cedar wood and ebony I made the ceilings of the apartments. 
The whole of that palace I embellished with veneered slabs of 
ivory and alabaster, and I embroidered its tapestries. With 
flat roofs, like a floor of lead, I covered the whole buildino- 
and with plates of pure silver and bright bronze I erected it 
within." 




WINGED FIGURE FROM A GATE AT NIMROUD. NEAR NINEVEH. 



From Assur-natzir-pal. (Sardanapalus.) 

"To Ninip [an Assyrian god], most powerful hero, war- 
rior, . . . powerful lord, whose onset in battle has not been 
opposed, ... he who rolls along the mass of heaven and earth, 
opener of canals, . . . the god who in his divinity nourishes 
heaven and earth, . . . bestowerof sceptres, ... a king in bat- 



20 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

tie, mighty, . . . smiting the land of the enemy, . . . the deity 
who changes not his purposes, the light of heaven and earth, 
a bold leader on the waters, destroyer of them that hate [him], 
a spoiler [and] Lord of the disobedient, dividing enemies, whose 
name in the speech of the gods no god has ever disregarded, — 
... to him, in the reverence of my heart for his might}'' Lord- 
ship, I founded a temple, where I caused to be made an image 
of Ninip himself in mountain-stone and brilliant gold." 

From an Inscription of S argon, upon a Palace. 

"I built in the city palaces covered with skins, with wood- 
work of sandal, tamarisk, cedar, and cypress, palaces of incom- 
parable magnificence for the seat of my royalty. . . . There I 
wrote up the glory of the gods. ... I made a spiral staircase 
like that of the great temple in Syria. . . . Between the doors, 
I placed eight double lions of massive bronze. ... I placed 
over them architraves of gypsum stone of great dimensions. . . . 
My palaces contain gold, silver, vessels of these two metals, 
precious stones, iron, bronze, blue and purple stuffs, . . . amber, 
sealskins, pearls, sandal and ebony wood, horses from Egypt, 
oxen, mules, camels. These are the tributes I asked for tlie 
gods." 

From Sennacherib. 

" In the first campaign I conquered . . . the King of Chaldea. 
... I opened his treasure house, I seized gold, silver, his fur- 
niture, his robes, his wife, his men, his courtiers, his male and 
female slaves, his domestics of the palace, his soldiers ; I 
brought them out and sold them for slaves. . . . But Hezekiah, 
king of Judah, did not submit. There were forty-six walled 
towns, and an infinite number of villages that I fought against, 
humbling their pride, and braving their anger. By means of 
fire, massacre, battles, and siege-operations, I took them ; I 
occupied them; I brought out 200,150 persons, great and 
small, men and women, horses, asses, mules, camels, oxen, and 



STUDY ON THE TlGRO-EUPHllATP^S VALLEY. 21 

sheep without number, and carried them off as booty. As for 
himself I shut him up in Jerusalem, tlie city of his power, like 
a bird in its cage. . . . Then the fear of my majesty terrified 
Hezekiah ; . . . He sent messengers to me . . . with thirty 
talents of gold and eight hundred talents of silver, metals, 
rubies, pearls, great carbuncles, seats covered with skins, 
thrones ornamented with leather, amber, sealskins, sandal 
wood, and ebon}-, the contents of his treasury, as well as his 
daughters, the women of his palace, his male and female 
slaves. . . . By my care I caused the uprising of springs in 
more than forty places in the plain ; I divided them into irri- 
gating canals for the people of Nineveh, and gave them to be 
their own property. To obtain water to turn the flour-mills, 
I l)rought it in pipes ... to Nineveh, and skilfully constructed 
water-wheels. I brought down the perennial waters of the 
river Kutzuru from the distance of three miles and a half, into 
those reservoirs, and covered them w^ell. 

'' That I might conquer my powerful enemies, I prayed to 
the gods my protectors, to Assur, the Moon, the Sun, Bel, 
Nebo, Nergal, Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbela. They 
heard my earnest prayers, and came to my assistance. From 
my heart I vowed a thank-offering for it." 

Of Assur -hani-pal. 

"Those men who uttered the carses of their mouth, against 
Assur my god, and against me, the prince his worshipper, had 
devised evil; — their tongues I pulled out, their overthrow I 
accomplished. The rest of the people I threw alive among the 
stone lions and bulls. Their cut-off limbs I caused to be eaten 
by dogs, bears, . . . birds of heaven, and fishes of the deep. 
By these things, ... I satisfied the hearts of the great gods my 
lords." 

From Nebuchadnezzar'' s Description of a Temple built by him 

at Babylon. 

" I employed for the woodwork of the chamber of oracles the 
largest trees I had caused to l)e transported from tlie summit of 



22 STUDIES IK GENEllAL HISTORY. 

Lebanon. I covered with pure gold the enormous beams of 
cypress, employed for the woodwork of the chamber of oracles ; 
the lower portion of the woodwork I incrusted with gold, silver, 
other metals, and gems. I had the vault of the mystic sanctu- 
ary incrusted with glass and gems, so as to represent the firma- 
ment with the stars. The wonder of Babylon, I rebuilt and 
restored it : it is this temple of the base of heaven and earth 
whose summit I raised of bricks, and covered it externally with 
a cornice of copper." 

From a Prayer at the Death of a Righteous Man. 

" To the Sun, greatest of the- gods, may he ascend ! and may 
the Sun, greatest of the gods, receive his soul into his holy 
hands ! " 

From an Assyrimi Ode. 

" O Fire, great Lord, who art the most exalted in the world, 
O Fire, with thy bright flame in the dark house thou dost cause 
light. Of all things that can be named. Thou dost form the 
fabric ! Of bronze and of lead, Thou art the melter ! Of sil- 
ver and of gold, Thou art the refiner ! ... Of the wicked man 
in the night-time ; Thou dost repel the assault ! But the man 
who serves his god. Thou wilt give him light for his actions." 

STUDY ON I AND 2. 

What were the two centres of power in the Tigro-Euphrates valley V 
What gave men power and greatness in this valley ? Make a list of the 
arts and sciences known to the Assyrians and Babylonians. Of indus- 
tries. What right had they to be called civilized ? How were they not 
civilized? On whom were they dependent for all the civilization they 
had? With what or whom was the king identified? Who were 
thought to aid him, and for whom did he fight? AVhich deities were 
better, those of Assyria, or Egypt ? Prove it. What was the am- 
bition of an Assyrian or Babylonian king? Which of these kings 
do you consider greatest, and why ? 

What did the Assyrio-Babylonians believe about the number and 
nature of the deities ? About the future existence of the soul ? How 
were their gods reached, and how pleased? What made fire seem 



STUDY ON PHa:NICIA. 23 

divine ? What proves that they believed in tlie interference of the 
gods in the human affairs ? 

What did the Assyrians seem to admire in art? What was the 
purpose of such a winged, colossal figure as is represented on p. 19 ? 



C. STUDY m PHCENIOIA. 

Chief contemporary authorities : Hebrew scriptures and 
a few scattered inscriptions; other original authorities: 
notices of the Greek writers, and Josephus. 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Ken- 
rick, Heeren, Rawlinson Lenormant, Duncker. 

Periods of History. i 

1500(?)-1100(?), — Sidonian power greatest. 

1100(?) to about 850, — Tyrian power greatest. 

850 onward, — Phoenicia for the most part subject to foreigners. 

1. Leading Events , Works , and Karnes of the PJicenician 

History. 



ABOtTT 
1035. 



Hiram, king of Tyre, builds and restores splen- 
did temples ; constructs a new harbor, lines the 
old one with quays, and protects all by a strong dyke; 
sends an exploring expedition through the Red Sea to 
India (Ophir). 

The Phoenicians establish colonies in Cyprus, 
Rhodes, and the Greek Archipelago ; on the 



Before 
776. 



coasts of Greece itself, in Sicily, Spain, and Northern 
Africa ; the most famous are Paphos, in Cyprus, — Lily- 
bseum and Panormus, in Sicily, — Utica and Carthage, 
in Africa, — Tartessus and Gades (Cadiz), in Spain. 
They obtain British tin and Baltic amber, probably by 



All dates B.C. 



24 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

an overland trade, at the mouths of the Rhine and Po; 
from the Red Sea they reach India, and bring thence 
its carved ivories, its wrought metals, and finely-woven 
stuffs ; they cause the gold and silver mines of Greece to 
be opened and worked. 

They adapt the Egyptian characters to the phonetic 
alphabet, which becomes the basis of the Hebrew, Greek, 
Latin, and following European alphabets. 

2. Extracts Illustrative of Phoenician Civilization, 

Description of Tyre. 

" Thy borders are in the midst of the seas, thy builders have 
perfected thy beauty. They have made all thy ship boards of 
fir trees : . . . they have taken cedars from Lebanon to make 
masts for thee. Of . . . oaks . . . have they made thine 
oars ; the company of the Asshurites (Assyrians), have made 
thy benches of ivory. . . . Fine linen with broidered work from 
Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail ; blue 
and purple from the isles of Elishah was that which covered 
thee. The inhabitants of Zidon and Arvad were thy mariners : 
thy wise men, Tyriis (Tyre), that were in thee, were thy 
pilots. . . . Tarshish (Tartessus) was thy merchant by reason 
of the multitude of all kinds of riches ; with silver, iron, tin, and 
lead they traded in thy fairs. . . . Syria was thy merchant by 
reason of the multitude of the wares of thy making : they occu- 
pied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, 
and fine linen, and coral, and agate. Judah, and the land of 
Israel, they were thy merchants : they traded in thy market 
wheat, . . . and honey, and oil, and balm. . . . Arabia, and 
all the princes of Kedar, they occupied with thee in lambs, and 
rams, and goats." — Ezekiel xxvii. 

The prophet also names, among articles of merchandise, the 
" persons of men," " vessels of brass," horses, horsemen, mules, 
" precious horns of ivory and ebony," wine, white wool, iron, 
cassia, "precious clothes for chariots." 



STUDY ON THE JEWS. 25 

From an Assyrian Inscription. 

"I attacked the city of Sidou, standing in the midst of the 
sea. ... 1 carried away all that I could of its treasures ; gold, 
silver, precious stones, amber, seal-skins, sandal-wood, and 
ebony, stuffs dyed purple and blue." 

STUDY ON I AND 2. 

Make a list of the occupations and industries of the Phoenicians. 
AVhat occupation was their ow7i as distinct from Assyrians, Babylo- 
nians, and Egyptians ? In order to carry on this occupation, what others 
nmst they have? Where would the Phoenicians find the best market 
for their goods, and why? What would they learn from their occu- 
pation that we learn from books ? What reason can you find in the 
physical geography of Phoenicia for its chief occupations ? Of what 
use were the Phoenicians to the world of their own time ? Of times 
since then? INIake a list of the countries which must have been 
visited by them. Why should they receive amber and tin at the 
mouths of the Po and Rhone rather than at any other point along 
the coast? How did Phoenicia begin the civilization of Europe? 

In General. — What right have the Assyrians, Babylonians, 
Phoenicians, and Egyptians to be called civilized? What facts among 
those given prove the highest civilization ? What sort of civilization 
is seen in these facts ? 



D. STUDY OIT THE JEWS. 

Chief contemporary sources of its history : its own 
scriptures and the Egyptian and Assyrian records ; other 
original authority, Josephus. 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English: Milman, 
Ewald, Stanley, Wellhausen, Dnncker, Kuenen. 

Periods of History.^ 

Exodus from Egypt, 1320(?). 

Period of Judges, Conquest of Palestine, 1320(?)-1055(?). 

' All dates B.C. 



26 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Period of United Monarchy, Saul, David, Solomon, 1055(?)-953(?) \ 

Period of Divided Monarchy and Decline, 95;3(?)-586. j 

The people taken captive and Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 586. 

1. Leading Events, Na^nes, and Works, 1320 (?)-586, 

Moses, a priest, " learned in all the wisdom of 
the Egyptians," leads the Jews ont of Egypt, 



About 
1330. 



where they had been in bondage, into Palestine ; gives 
the people a code of civil law in the name of one God, 
Jehovah; these laws and the early history of the world, 
and of the Jews, are embodied in the first five books of 
the Old Testament. 

Joshua, the minister of Moses, leads the Jews 
to conquer a place for themselves in Palestine ; 



About 
1350. 



the strongholds of the country are taken, and the Jews, 
settled by their twelve tribes, become the chief people of 
Palestine. 

Constant war between the Jews, who believe 
in one God, and the other people of Palestine, who 
are polytheists and idolaters. The rulers of the 



1350 (?) 

TO 

1055 (?) 



Jews are prophets, priests, or men believed to be chosen 
by God himself ; they are leaders in battle, and a continu- 
ous record of their deeds is preserved in tlie Old Testament. 
Saul is anointed the first king of the Jews by 
the prophet Samuel, who is his chief adviser until 
his death. Under his rule, Palestine is more 



1055 (?) 

TO 

953 (?) 



thoroughly brought under the Jewish dominion. 

David is secretly anointed Saul's successor by the proph- 
et Samuel, and on Saul's death is chosen by the people 
as king, being their strongest warrior and a very devout 
man. He makes Jerusalem the chief city of Palestine, he 
conquers and holds much neighboring territory, and 
gathers a great treasure for building a temple in honor of 



STUDY ON THE JEWS. 27 

Jehovah ; dies before he begins it ; chief advisers, the 
priests and prophets. He composes many psalms for use 
in sacred service. Solomon, his son, becomes king of 
Palestine ; forms alliances with Egj^pt and Phoenicia ; 
bailds the great temple at Jerusalem, and a rich palace for 
himself, using in both great quantities of gold and silver, 
of precious woods, and fine carved work, mostly mad.e by 
Tyrian workmen ; poet, scholar, and author of many 
Proverbs. A continuous historical record of this wliole 
period is made by the Jewish priests, and preserved in the 
Old Testament. 

A continuous record is kept by the priests 



953 (?) 

during this last period, and a mass of religious to 
poetry is written by Isaiah, Ezekiel, Jeremiah, ' — ^^^' 
and other j)rophets ; otherwise, there are no notable works 
or deeds among the Jews before 586. 

2. Eactracts Illustrative of Jeivish Belief and Feeling. 

From the Laws. 

'• And God spake all these words, saying, I am the Lord th}^ 
God, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt. . . . 
Thou shalt have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not 
make unto thee any graven image. . . . Honour thy father and 
thy mother : that thy days may be long upon the laud which the 
Lord tlw God giveth thee. Thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt uot 
commit adultery. Thou shalt uot steal. Thou shalt not bear 
false witness against thy neighbour. Thou shalt not covet. . . . 
If thou buy an Hebrew servaut, six years he shall serve : and in 
the seventh he shall go out free for nothing. . . . Thou shalt 
give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, foot for foot. 
. . . He that sacrificeth unto any God, save unto the Lord 
only, he shall be utterly destroyed. Thou shalt neither vex a 
stranger, nor oppress him : for ye were strangers in the land of 
Egypt. Ye shall not afflict any widow or fatherless child. If 



28 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

thou afflict them in any wise, and they cry at ail unto me, I will 
surely hear their cry. . . . Thou shalt not wrest the judgment 
of thy poor in his cause. Keep thee far from a false matter ; 
and the innocent and righteous slay thou not : for I will not 
justify the wicked." 

From the Psalms, 

" The Lord also will be a refuge for the oppressed, a refuge 
in times of trouble. . . . The Lord is king for ever and ever : 
the heathen are perished out of his land. Lord, thou hast 
heard the desire of the humble : thou wilt prepare their heart, 
thou wilt cause thine ear to hear : to judge the fatherless and 
the oppressed, that the man of the earth may no more oppress. 
... It is God that girdeth me with strength, and maketh my 
way perfect. . . . He teacheth my hands to war, so that a bow 
of steel is broken by mine arms. . . . Thou hast also given 
me the works of mine enemies ; that I might destroy them that 
hate me. . . . Some trust in chariots, and some in horses : but 
we will remember the name of the Lord our God. They are 
brought down and fallen : but we are risen and stand upright. 
. . . Many are the afflictions of the righteous : but the Lord 
delivereth him out of them all. He keepeth all his bones : not 
one of them is broken. Evil shall slay the wicked : and they 
that hate the righteous shall be desolate. . . . Blessed is he 
that considereth the poor : the Lord will deliver him in time of 
trouble. . . . For the Lord most high is terrible ; he is a great 
king over all the earth. He shall subdue the people under us, 

and the nations under our feet." 

« 

From the Proverbs. 

"My son, if sinners entice tliee, consent thou not. . . . 
When wisdom entereth into thine heart, and knowledge is 
pleasant unto thy soul ; discretion shall preserve thee, under- 
standing shall keep thee. . . . Let not mercy and truth forsake 
thee : bind them about thy neck ; write them upon the table of 
thine heart : so shalt thou find favour and good understanding in 



STUDY ON THE JEWS. 29 

the sight of God and man. Trust in the Lord with all thine heart ; 
and lean not unto thine own understanding. In all thy ways 
acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths. . . . Devise 
not evil against thy neighbour, seeing he dwelleth securely by 
thee. . . . The curse of the Lord is in the house of the wicked : 
but he blesseth the habitation of the just. Surely he scorneth 
the scorners : but he giveth grace unto the lowly." 

STUDY ON I AND 2. 

What seems to be the chief influence in Jewish life? What 
class of people are most powerful? Prove it from 1 and 2. In what 
sort of works are they especially rich? What class produce these 
works? Judging from the extracts, what are some of the chief 
requirements of their moral code? What is true of its spirit? 
What classes are especially cared for? What historical reason for 
this? What virtues seem to be especially admired among them? 
How does their belief conspicuously differ from that of other peo- 
ples of their time? How is their morality superior to that of the 
Assyrians? How does the quality of their poetry as seen in the 
Psalms compare with the hymns and prayers of the Assyrians and 
Egyptians ? What conspicuous quality of character do they ascribe 
to Jehovah? On what do they chiefly depend in war? 

In General. — What did each of the nations we have been studying 
care for most? or, to put it differently, what was the ideal man and 
the ideal life among each people ? Which ideal was, in your opinion, 
the best ? What did each people do that has endured and been of 
use to all the world ? Which people seem to you least useful ? What 
is the application of the motto given on p. 3? 



32 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOHYc 



HELLAS, 1000(?)-338 B.C. 

PERIODS OF HISTORY.i 

A. Homeric, Heroic, Legendary Age before 11&. 

B. Colonizing, Formative Period, llQ-bOO. 

C. Struggle with the Persians, 500-479. 

D. Athenian Leadership, 479-431. 

E. Peloponnesian War, 431-404. 

F. Spartan, Theban, and Macedonian Leaderships, 404-338. 

G. Macedonian Conquest, 338, 

" For the whole earth is the sepulchre of famous men ; not only art 
they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but 
in foreign lands there dwells also an unwritten memorial of them, graven 
not on stone, but in the hearts of men. Make them your examples, and, 
esteeming courage to be freedom, and freedom to be happiness, do not 
weigh too nicely the perils of war." — Pericles. 



Note on Map of Greece. — The purple fish, which the Phoeni- 
cians used in dyeing theii' linens and wools, was found along the eastern 
shore of Greece ; this shore abounded in deep and sheltering bays, 
while the western coast was mostly composed of steep rock or flat 
marsh. Iron was found in Euboea, Boeotia, Melos, and Laconia, 
copper in Cyprus and Euboea, silver in Attica, gold and silver in 
Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus ; marble was found in the moun- 
tains and islands, the best coming from Paros and Pentelicon. 
Nearly every state and island had its own fertile wheat-fields, its 
own mountain-forests, and sheep-pastures ; while the soil was favor- 
able for vine and olive culture. 

The people dressed in wool or linen, and ate either barley or wheat 
oread, with olive oil for a relish, and wine for their drink ; in Arcadia, 
pork, in Attica, fish, was generally added to this diet. 

1 Dates all B.C. 



STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 33 



STUDY ON MAP AND NOTE. 



What natural bomiclaiies has Greece in eacli direction ? Give the 
geographical reasons for the boundary of Thessaly. How far do these 
reasons apply to the boundaries of other Greek states ? What advan- 
tages are there in such boundaries ? How far are the Greek states 
able to supply their own needs for clothing, food, weapons,, and 
shelter? What effect will this have on the independence of the 
various states? Compare the size of the Greek states with other 
ancient and modern states. 

Make a list of the occupations which you think the Greeks nuiy 
have. Which of these occupations will be common to all Greece? 
AVhich will be found in Attica? In Arcadia? In Laconia? Will 
it be easier to get to Asia or to other parts of Europe from Greece? 
Why? Why was it more desirable to go to Asia than to Europe easily ? 
From which state of Greece is that way easiest? 

Make a list of reasons why the geography of Greece is favorable 
to an early civilization. To which state of Greece do these reasons 
most strongly apply ? 



A. STUDY ON HEEOIO AGE. 

Chief contemporary sources of its history: Homeric 
poems, the Iliad, Odyssey, and Hymns; the monuments 
at Mycenae, Tiryns (in Argos), and in the Troad. 

Other original sources : Hesiod and the Greek tragedians, 
Herodotus. 

Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius, Duncker. 

1. Some of the 3Iore Famous Events, Men, and Works 
of the Heroic or Mythical Age. 

The Settlement of Greece. — In the Greek myths regard- 
ing the earliest settlement of Greece, we find it told that 
the founder of Athens came from Egypt ; that the rulers 
of Argos were partly of Egyptian race ; that the founder 
of Thebes was Cadmus the Phoenician ; and that Pelops, 
whose descendants became the kings of the Peloponnesus, 
was of Asia Minor. The walls and sculptures of Mycenae 



34 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



were said to have been built by Asiatic help ; the intro- 
duction of the alphabet was ascribed to Cadmus; while 
wheat was said to have been introduced from Libya. In 
the Greek language, the following words are of Phoenician 
origin : linen, sack-cloth, myrrh, frankincense, cinnamon, 
soap, lyres, wine-jars, cosmetics, writing-tablets. 





\(^i|i|iiilS^^^^^^ 



THE LION-GATE OP MYCEN.E, 

The Expedition of the Argonauts. — In Colchis, on the 
Black Sea, there was, it was said, a fleece of pure gold. 
To obtain this prize, Jason, a Thessalian Greek, sailed 
with a band of heroes through the Hellespont to Colchis, 
whence they brought this golden fleece. 



STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 35 

The Trojan War. — Paris, Son of Priam, king of Troy, 
had seized Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and 
had carried her home to the Troad. So Menelaus and his 
brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, called their warriors 
together and sailed for Troy, and with them went many 
other chiefs of Greece ; notably, Achilles, king of the 
Myrmidons, from Thessaly ; Ajax, son of the king of Sala- 
mis; Diomed, a chief from Argos; Odysseus (Utysses), 
king of Ithaca; Nestor, king of Pylos. For nine years 
they laid siege to Troy, which at last fell into their hands, 
and was destroyed. 

The Dorian Migration. — The Thessalians entered Thes- 
saly from Epirus, settling and naming the land. Those 
before dwelling in Thessaly moved to the southward; 
among them were the Dorians^ who, under the lead of the 
sons of the god-born Heracles (Hercules), conquered and 
settled the greater part of Peloponnesus, forming the states 
of Sparta^ Elis, Messenia, Arc/oSy Corinth. The lonians, 
who were before in Peloponnesus, now crossed to Lydia, 
where they founded twelve cities, Ephesus and Miletus 
being the greatest. The people of these twelve cities 
erected at Mycale ^ temple, called Panionium, where they 
all went and worshipped Poseidon, with a joyous festi' 
val. Such a union was called an Amphietyony^ and similar 
unions were formed in many of the Greek states. 

The Homeric Poems. — About 1000, the bards began to 
sing and recite the story of the Trojan war (the Iliad) 
and the wanderings of Odysseus on his return from Troy 
(Odyssey). The Iliad and Odyssey, together with certain 
hymns to the gods, have long been attributed to the poet 
Horner^ though their authorship and date are much disputed. 

The Establishment of the Delphic Oracle. — The god Apollo, 
descending from Olympus, looked on the hills and groves 
of Greece, to choose a spot where he would reveal to men 



36 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the will of Zeus and the events of the future, and whence 
he would give them advice in their perplexing affairs. He 
chose the slopes of Parnassus, and there the temple of 
Delphi was built in his honor; and for priests he chose the 
Cretans of a passing ship, who knew the sacred hymns 
addressed to him in Crete. In this temple always dwelt a 
priestess, through whom Apollo spoke to men, told them 
of the future, and how to guide the present aright. Thus, 
according to the myth, was founded the famous Delphic 
Oracle. To guard it, a council was formed, comprising 
members from all the leading Greek states, and known as 
The Amphictyotiio Council. 

The Laws of Lycurgus. — (See p. 66.) 

2. Ijist of the Chief Gods of the Greeks, ivith their 
Attributes. 

Zeus (Jove, Jupiter), the god of the sky, controlling rams, clouds, 

and weather in general. 
Poseidon (Neptune), god of the sea, controlling calm and storm. 
Apollo, god of wisdom, of medicine, music, and poetry ; giving power 

to heal, and inspiring lays and poems ; afterward, god of the sun. 
Ares (Mars), god of war, of physical force, controlling the field of 

battle. >> 

Hephaestus (Vulcan), god of fire, and of all the forging and casting 

and moulding of metals ; giving skill in all metal work ; repre- 
sented as lame. 
Hermes (Mercury), god of cunning ; of inventive skill ; of commercial 

sharpness and wit. 
Hera (Juno), wife of Zeus and queen of the sky. 
Athena (Minerva), daughter of Zeus, and goddess of wisdom; of 

strategy in war; of housewifery. 
Artemis (Diana), sister of Apollo, goddess of hunting; afterward 

goddess of the moon. 
Aphrodite (Venus), goddess controlling marriage and love. 
De METER (Ceres), goddess of harvest, controlling the yield of the seed 

and the fertility of the soil. 
Hestia (Vesta), goddess of fire, especially of the hearth-nre, thus 

becoming the deity of the home. 



STUDY ON HEllOIC AGE. 37 

These were the twelve great gods ; besides these, Diony- 
sius (Bacchus) was widely worshipped. He was the god 
of wine, controlling the yield of the vineyards and inspir- 
ing drunken madness. Every wood, every stream, every 
mountain, had its own presiding spirit, who miglit be 
approached and pleased by prayers and gifts. 

The following phrases are used of the gods : " the gods 
who live forever;" "all power is with the gods;" "the 
gods, if willing, can save a man, even from a distance." 

STUDY ON I AND 2. 

In what way were the Greeks evidently accustomed to go from place 
io place? What occupation would this encourage? What effect 
would this habit have on civilization? Why? What do the myths 
indicate of the origin of Greek civilization ? What does the list of 
words given tell us of the Phoenicians? Of the Greeks? Which 
tribes were most active in the Heroic Age? Why should an early 
movement have taken place to gain Thessaly? (See Map.) In what 
geographical directions did the Greek movements take place? Why? 
What do you understand by an Amphictyony? Name two things 
which were in common to those belonging to an Amphictyony. 

What does 2 indicate in regard to the occupations of the Greeks? 
What reason had they for propitiating each of their gods? What 
relation evidently existed between their religion and their life and 
surroundings? 

What proofs of intellectual life among the Greeks of the Heroic 
Age ? What directions did it take. The " Lion-gate " indicates the 
beginnings of what arts? 

3. Extracts Illustrative of Heroic Age, 

a. Agamemnon's Councils of War. (Iliad.) 

In the ninth and final year of the Trojan war, the issues of 
the contest still being doubtful, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, 
called together a "council of the great-hearted elders," the 
leaders of the people, and said : " A dream from heaven came to 
me in my sleep . . . and charged me, saying ; . . . ' To sleep all 
night beseemeth not one who is a councilor, to whom the host 
is entrusted. ... I am a messenger to thee from Zeus who . . . 



38 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

hath great care for thee and pity. He biddeth thee call to arms 
the Greeks, for now thou may est take . . . the city of the Tro- 
jans.' So spake the dream. ... So come, let us now call to 
arms . . . the sous of the Greeks. But first I will make trial of 
them . . . and will bid them flee . . . only do ye from this side 
and from that speak to hold them back." To this the chiefs 
agreed, and when the people were assembled, Agamemnon pro- 
posed a return to Greece, " and they with shouting hasted to 
the ships ; " but Od3^sseus, king of Ithaca, who had been pres- 
ent at the council of the elders, ran among the folk to call them 
back ; " whenever he found one that was a captain and a man 
of mark, he . . . refrained him with gentle words : ' Good sir, 
it is not seemly to affright thee like a coward, but do thou sit 
thyself and make all thy folks sit down.' . . . But whatevei 
man of the people he saw . . . shouting, him he drave with 
his scepter and chode . . . ; ' Good sir, sit still and heark- 
en to the words of others that are thy betters ; but thou art 
no warrior and . . . never reckoned ; whether in battle or 
in council ... let there be one master, one king, whom Zeus 
hath given the scepter and made the giver of the laws to all 
the rest.' " 

The assembled Greeks were now addressed in favor of war, 
first by one and then another prince ; at last, after a speech by 
Odysseus, the Greeks " shouted aloud and praised the saying 
of godlike " Odysseus ; and after two more speeches from their 
princes they eagerly went to their tents to prepare for battle. 
" And they did sacrifice, each man to one of the everlasting gods, 
praying for escape from death." But Agamemnon offered sac- 
rifice to Zeus, "and called the elders, the princes of the . . . 
host," to stand around the sacrifice while thus he prayed ; 
" Zeus, most glorious, most great god of the stormcloud, . . . 
grant that the sun set not, . . . till I have laid low upon the 
earth Priam's palace." 

Then each chief marshalled his own men for war, except 
Achilles, who was angry with Agamemnon (see/.), and would 
neither come to council nor to war, though Agamemnon sent 
him many gifts, entreating him. 



STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 39 

Again, while the Trojans were keeping watch, the Greeks 
" were holden of heaven-sent panic " ; and again Agamemnon 
summoned an assembly, in which he advised a return to Greece ; 
but all kept silence until prince Diomed arose and said ; — ... 
"With thee first in thy folly will I contend. ... King . . . 
deemest thou that the sons of the Greeks are thus indeed cow- 
ards? ... if thine own heart is set on departing, go thy way. 
. . . But the rest will tarry here." Him the Greeks applauded, 
shouting aloud, and after him another chief arose and advised 
Agamemnon to call a council of the elders, saying, " In the 
gathering of many shalt thou listen to him that deviseth the 
most prudent council ; " and thus did Agamemnon. 

b. The Laiv-suit. (Iliad.) 

"The folk were gathered in the assembly-place, for there a 
strife was arisen, two men striving about the price of a man 
slain ; ^ the one avowed that he had paid all, expounding to tlie 
people, but the other denied that he had received aught : . . . 
and the folk were cheering both, as they took part on either 
side ; . . . w^hile the elders were sitting in the sacred circle. . . . 
Then before the people, they rose up and gave judgment." 

STUDY ON a AND b. 

What title has the chief ruler among the Greeks? Make a list of 
the things which he does. What title may he have on account of each 
one of these duties ? How is his will made known to the people ? 
How does he know the opinion of the people ? Who help him accom- 
plish his will ? How do these men know his will? What means do 
they take to make the people obey ? What means does Agamemnon 
take to make the other chiefs or kings obey ? (See case of Achilles.) 
How many sorts of assemblies, or meetings, do we see among the 
Greeks ? Who compose each, and what is the nse of each ? What takes 
the place of each nowadays, in our own country ? How do the people 
show their opinion of proposals made to them? How do the follow- 
ing extracts show this government to have been supported ? 

1 In case of murder, the matter was often settled by the murderer's pay- 
ing a sum of money to relatives of the man murdered. 



40 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Odysseus, king of Ithaca, found, on his return, that his wife's suitors 
had wantonly wasted his rich flocks, whereupon he said : " But as 
for the sheep which the proud wooers have slain, I myself will [seize] 
many more as spoil, and others the Greeks will give, till they fill all 
my folds. . . . But now go to my well-wooded farm-land ; " there, we 
are told, were rich vineyards, and orchards of pear and apple, fig and 
olive trees. 

Achilles, king of the Myrmidons, says, speaking of his successes in 
war : " Many a man T took alive and sold." 

Compare this form of government with that of Egypt or Assyria. 
What is the most conspicuous difference ? 

c. Penelope and Telemachus. (Odyssey.) 

Odysseus was so delayed in his return to Ithaca, that most 
of the Ithacans thought him dead ; and many chiefs came to 
woo his wife Penelope, but she put them off, hoping against hope 
for the return of her husband. One day, as she was weaving 
with her women, she heard a minstrel singing to her suitors of 
the faring of the Greeks from Troy, and weeping she appeared 
from her chamber, and asked him to change his theme ; but 
Telemachus, her son, said to her : . . . " Let thy heart and mine 
endure to listen, for not Odysseus only lost in Troy the day of 
his returning, but many another likewise perished. Howbeit, 
go to thy chamber and mind thine own housewiferies, the loom 
and distaff. . . . But speech shall be for men . . . but for me in 
chief ; for mine is the lordship in the house." Soon after, one 
of the suitors becoming importunate, said to Telemachus ; 
"... Send away thy mother and bid her be married to whom- 
soever her father commands, and whoso is well pleasing to her." 
But Telemachus replied : " I may in no wise thrust forth . . . the 
woman that bare me, that reared me : . . . for I shall have 
evil at the hand of her father, and some god will give me more 
besides . . . and I shall have blame of men." 

d. Odysseus and the Phmacians. (Odyssey.) 

In the course of his wanderings, Odysseus was shipwrecked 
on the coast of Fhaeacia (mythical). Meanwhile, Nausicaa, 



STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 41 

the daughter of ... a Pha^acian king, came down to the river- 
side with her maidens to wash ; and while the clothes were dry- 
ing and the maidens phiying ball, Odysseus appeared, asking 
help ; and the princess directed him to the palace where her 
mother was weaving and her father sitting among the council- 
ors. The next day, the king made a feast for Odyssens, and 
after it, a minstrel " that was had in honor of the people " sang 
a song of heroes ; then all went forth to games, matches in 
wrestling, racing, and throwing, in leaping and boxing ; and 
the king's son asked Odysseus to join them, saying, "... there 
is no greater glory for a man while yet he lives, than that which 
he achieves by hand and foot." Odysseus consenting, won the 
praise of all by his strength and skill ; then the king called 
forth the dancers, " that so the stranger may tell his friends 
. . . how far we surpass all men ... in speed of foot, and in 
the dance and song." Then the " divine " minstrel sang again; 
and Odysseus told the company the story of his wanderings. 

e. The Return of Odysseus. (Odyssey.) 

On the return of Odysseus, the first man whom he met was 
his swineherd, Eumseus, who not knowing him, yet asked him 
to his hut, and gave him bread and meat and wine, and when 
Odysseus said, "May Zeus . . . and all the other deathless 
gods grant thee thy dearest wish, since thou hast received me 
heartily," the swineherd answered, " It were an impious thing 
for me to slight a stranger . . . for from Zeus are all strangers 
and beggars ; . . . the gods have stayed the returning of my 
master, who would have loved me diligently and given me some- 
what of my own, a house and a parcel of ground, and a comely 
wife such as a kind lord gives to his man." And Eumseus 
told him of the insolent wooers, saying, " Verily tlie blessed 
gods love not froward deeds but . . . justice and the righteous 
deeds of men." Afterward Odysseus asked the swineherd how 
he chanced to come to Ithaca: " Was a . . , town taken and 
sacked, wherein dwelt thy father and thy lady-mother, or did 
unfriendly men find thee lonely . . . and ship thee hence and 
sell tliec into the house of thy master here ? " 



42 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

Eumseus replied that he was born a king's son in a far-off 
land ; but that his nurse, enticed away by Phoenicians, carried 
him with her to their ship, which quickly sailed away ; and 
coming to Ithaca sold him to the king. 

On reaching the palace and being still unrecognized, Od3^s- 
seus boasted of his strength to mow a whole day long, and to 
plow a straight and even furrow ; and later revealed himself to 
Penelope by reminding her of how he had made his own bed- 
stead, smoothing it with the adze, boring it with the auger, 
inlawing it with ivory, silver, and gold, and how about it he had 
built a chamber, " with stones close-set." 

STUDY ON c, d, e. 

Judging from these extracts, how many wives does one husband 
have ? What form of marriage is this called ? Who rules the house V 
What three things check the exercise of this power ? A¥hat name is 
given to this form of family ? Say all you can of the position of 
woman as indicated in the above extracts. 

Make a list of the occupations named or indicated. How do kings 
and princesses occupy themselves ? Compare their occupations with 
those of common people. With those of modern kings and queens. 
What remark can you make (a) about simplicity? and (h) about 
equality, then as compared with now ? How is Odysseus treated by 
the king ? by the swineherd ? 

How do the Greeks amuse themselves ? Have such amusements a 
good or bad effect ? Good or bad in what way ? 

To what social class does Eumaeus belong? How does he com- 
pare in birth with Odysseus? How is he treated? How are 
the men belonging to this class obtained? What other classes 
appear? [See, also, p. 38, account of Odysseus summoning the Greeks 
to council.] 

/. The Wrath of Apollo, (Hiad.) 

The priest of Apollo had come to Agamemnon to ransom 
his daughter, whom the Greeks had taken prisoner ; but Aga- 
memnon refused his gifts, and the priest, going apart, thus 
prayed Apollo: "Hear me, god of the silver bow ... If 
ever I built a temple gracious in thine eyes, or if ever I 



STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 43 

burnt to thee fat flesh of bulls or goats, fulfil thou this my 
prayer; let the [Greeks] pay by thine arrows for my tears." 
And Apollo hearing him, "came down from the peaks of 
Olympus wroth in heart. . . . And the arrows clanged upon his 
shoulders in his wrath, as the god moved." For nine days 
he sent a plague among the Greeks, but on the tenth, Achilles 
called a council, " for in his mind the goddess Hera of the 
white arms put the thought," for she grieved to see the sick 
and dying Greeks. And Achilles thus advised; "Come, let 
us now enquire of some soothsayer or priest or an interpreter of 
dreams, . . . who shall say wherefore Apollo is so wroth." 
Then an augur arose, declaring that Apollo would never cease 
his anger till Agamemnon should restore the daughter of his 
priest. Agamemnon, though much enraged, obeyed, but 
demanded as a recompense the maid who had been given to 
Achilles. Then a grave quarrel arose until Achilles was even 
about to draw his sword on Agamemnon ; but " the bright-eyed 
goddess Athene " suddenly appeared and bade him put back 
the sword, and cease from present strife ; and Achilles, though 
reluctant, yielded, saying, " whosoever obeyeth the gods, to 
him they gladly hearken." So the priest regained his daughter 
and prayed Apollo to remove the plague from the Greeks ; and 
"Apollo heard him," and the Greeks offered sacrifices and 
*' all day long . . . worshiped the god with music . . . and his 
heart was glad to hear." 

g. The Feast on Olympus. ^ 

The goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had accused him of plan- 
ning mischief to the Greeks, but Zeus replied, "Abide thou 
in silence and hearken to my bidding." Then Hera feared, 
and all the gods were troubled ; but her son, the lame Hephaes- 
tus, advised her to submit and speak to Zeus with gentle words, 
and not "bring wrangling among the gods." "Then he 
poured wine to all the . . . gods, ladling the sweet nectar 
from the bowl. And laughter unquenchable arose among 
the blessed gods to see Hephaestus bustling through the 



G 



"2'n«2„ , 






■^9afhe . 



Rhofia 



V 






L^ 



1 Sardinia 



Palaiapolis^ 
FbseidoniaS 



GREECE 

and the 

GREEK COLONIES. 



(CTfica)'' 




I 




HeaambTia 




Olbi< 













2T ^ 



S S 



jjgvactea 






^ Tliessaly 1 . ^1:5^^^ .p-ff'^^t 

\ %■ ' '••"' O^-,?" Lesbos U^^Lyiia V 1 




CKETE 



w-va'a^^ 



/2r 






C^ 



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46 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

palace. So feasted they all day till the setting of the sun ; 
nor was their soul aught stinted of the fair banquet, nor of 
the beauteous lyre that Apollo held. . . . Now when the bright 
light of the sun was set, these went each to his own house to 
sleep, where each one had his palace made with cunning device 
by famed Hephaestus." 

h. The Visit of Odysseus to Hades. 

Odysseus was permitted, while 3^et alive, to visit the homes 
of the dead; and first he "besought the tribes of the dead in 
vows and prayers " and offered sacrifice to them ; and then 
about him came " the spirits of . . . old men of man}- and evil 
days, and tender maidens . . . and many . . . wounded with 
bronze-shod spears, men slain in fight with their bloody mail 
about them." And among them was the spirit of his mother; 
but when he tried to embrace her, she flitted away like " a 
shadow" or" a dream.'* Among the rest he saw Achilles, 
who told him : ' ' Rather would I live upon the earth as the 
hireling or the landless man, who has no great livelihood, than 
bear sway among all the dead." 

STUDY ON /, g, h, REFERRING ALSO TO 2. 

What did the Greeks believe (a) about the number, (h) about the 
power, (c) about the relative rank of their gods ? What part or parts 
of the world seemed to them under divine direction ? It is said that 
the Greek gods were anthropomorphic, or like men : prove it from the 
text. How were they like men ? How unlike ? How did the Greeks 
believe they could please or persuade their gods? Discover their will? 
What spirit seemed to pervade their worship? Look over previous 
work, and find additional facts to prove what you have said. What 
difference between the Greek, the Egyptian, and the Assyrian gods ? 
Find three things that the Greeks believed of the future state. 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 47 

B. STUDY ON HISTORIC GEEEOE, OR HELLAS, 776-500. 

I. General Hellenic Development. 
II. Studies of Special States. 

1. The Constitution and Laws of Sparta. 

2. The Development of the Athenian Constitution. 

Principal contemporary sources of history : Herodotus ; 
lyric poets of period ; monuments and remains at Olympia, 
at Psestum, Poseidonia, Agrigentum, and other places in 
Sicily and Southern Italy ; at Ephesus, Assos ; in Samos, 
and other islands of the ^gsean. 

Other principal original sources : Thucydides, Plutarch, 
Aristotle, Xenophon. 

Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius. 

Note on the Map. — In Illyria were to be found cattle and slaves, 
bitumen, timber, and silver ; in exchange for these, the Greeks gave 
the Illyrians salt and salt-fish, oil and wine ; while to the Illyrian 
chiefs they gave the finely woven wool of Miletus, the famous pottery 
of Corcyra, or wrought ornaments of gold and silver, whose material 
had come, perhaps, from the rich mines of Thrace. The lands about 
Cyrene and about the Italian and Sicilian towns, as well as the whole 
of Asia Minor, were rich in cattle and wheat, in wine and oil. From 
Athens went figs and olives, pottery and silver; from Chalcis, famous 
swords of bronze, wrought from the copper and iron of the neighboring- 
mines ; from Corinth, pottery and bronze, and the best-built ships. 

The colonies about the Black Sea were mostly the daughter-cities of 
Miletus ; to those on the southern shore, flocked the caravans of Assyria 
and India ; to those on the east, the Phasis washed down the gold of 
Caucasus ; to those on the north and west, came wheat and timber, 
flocks and herds, and Scythian gold. 

STUDY ON THE MAP AN[f NOTE. 
What part of each country is occupied by the Greeks? What 
objects do you fancy the Greeks have in founding colonies? Why 
should they choose the locations in which we find them ? Which of 
the occupations of Homeric Greece seem to have become predominant, 
judging from the map? What occupations support this one ? Which 
of the Greek races lead in this occupation? What effect has this 
occupation on the unity of Greek territory? Why? 



48 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

AVhat waters are familiar to the Greeks? Name four of their 
colonies that seem peculiarly important to you by their position. 
Which of them are placed where important modern cities now stand? 
Which one would you choose as the most important of all, and why? 
AVhy are so many placed at the mouths of rivers ? 

Make a list of the occupations and trades evidently known to the 
Greeks at this time. What occupations seem to be most prevalent 
among the people living near the Greek colonies, and what do you 
judge their state of civilization to have been? What effect will the 
colonies have upon these people ? 

B. I. Study of General Hellenic Development^ 776-490 B.C 

1. CLASSES OF PEOPLE FOUND IN GREECE. 

a. In Laconia. — Spartans^ descendants of the Dorians 
who conquered Peloponnesus; they hold the best land, 
govern, determine peace and war, lead in battle and 
share its spoils. They are supported by the produce 
of their own land, which is worked for them by Helots, 
or serfs ; and the only occupation allowed them is that 
of war. 

Perioeci, descendants of the original inhabitants of 
Laconia. They serve the Spartans in war, but are other- 
wise free, and engage in all sorts of occupations. 

Helots ; these are serfs whose duty it is to till the land 
owned by the Spartan state. 

h. In Attica. — lonians^ descended from Ionian con- 
querors of Athens; position in Attica similar to that of 
Spartans in Laconia, but allowed to engage in various 
occupations. 

Meties^ the free- non-Ionian inhabitants of Attica, pro- 
tected by its laws but having no share in its government. 

Slaves^ the personal and private property of the inhabi- 
tants of Attica; that is, belonging to individuals, for whom 
they perform all sorts of service and labor. 

Similar classes, with local differences, are found in all 
tlie Greek states. In each state the ruling class believes 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 49 

itself descended from some common ancestor of divine or 
heroic birth, whom they honor with games, festivals, and 
sacrifices. Thus, all the Dorians honor Heracles^ and all 
the lonians, Ion, tlie son of Apollo; each tribe of lonians 
or Dorians has, moreover, its own special ancestor, whom 
all its members may worship in common. 

2. LIST OF LEADING EVENTS OF THE PERIOD. 



•776. 



The Olympic Era. — The Olympic games were 
celebrated in honor of Olympian Zeus, at his 
temple at Olympia, in Elis. They consisted in contests in 
running, leaping, throwing the disk, boxing, and wrestling, 
and afterward, chariot racing became an important feature. 
The prize of victory was simply a wreath of the wild olive. 
Sparta arranged with Elis the laws for the games, to which 
only Greeks were admitted. Statues were erected to the 
victors, of which the historian Pausanias, visiting Olympia 
in the second century B.C., mentions 200 as noteworthy 
from a much larger number. During the time of the 
games, truce was proclaimed in all the states whose citi- 
zens were engaged at Olympia. In 776, the records of 
victors in these games began to be kept, and from this 
year the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads, or periods 
of four years each ; for instance, an event occurring by our 
chronology in 770 B.C. would be dated by them as belong- 
ing to the second Olympiad. 

The Spartans conquer Messenia whose inhabi- 
tants either emigrate or become Spartan Helots. 
Those emigrating to Sicily found Messana. The 



776 

TO 
600. 



Spartans also conquer a mountain frontier for themselves 
from Arcadia; Syracuse, Tarentum, Massalia, Corcyra, 
Cyrene, and most of the other Greek colonies, are founded 
during this period. Egypt is opened to Greek merchants, 
who also find their way to Spain, and bring thence an 



50 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

enormous amount of metal. In gratitude for this dis- 
covery, they dedicate to the Samian Juno a hirge bronze 
vase, richly ornamented and representing a tenth of their 
gains. In Megara, a man said to have been a cook over- 
throws the government of nobles, and he and his descend- 
ants rule the state for about a hundred years. In Corinth, 
also, the government of the few or of the nobles (Oli- 
garchy) is overthrown by the leaders of the people, 
Cypselus and his son Periander, who themselves succes- 
sively hold the chief power. By these men a gilt colossal 
statue of Zeus is dedicated . to the god at Olympia, and 
a large chest of cedar-wood, overlaid with carved gold and 
ivory, is offered to Hera. In other Greek states, also, the 
oligarchies are overthrown by popular leaders or power- 
ful men, who become rulers under the title of " Tyrant " 
or ''despot." In several cases these "Tyrants" are 
put down by the help of Sparta, who always opposes 
them. 

For Athens, see B. II. 2. 

The first sacred war occurs, caused as fol- 



600 

TO 

590. 



lows: the pilgrims to Delphi are annoyed and 

heavily taxed by the neighboring city Cirrha; 
and at last, on the motion of the Athenian Solon, the 
states of the Delphic Amphictyony join forces and 
destroy Cirrha, and, dedicating the land on which it 
stood to Apollo, there hold the Pythian games; these 
games are at first simple contests in music and poetry, 
but afterwards races and athletic sports are added. 

The Nemean games are established in honor of 

Zeus, and the Isthmean in honor of Poseidon. 

Sparta gains part of the Argive territory. Croesus, 



590 

TO 
600. 



king of Lydia, asks for aid from Greece, addressing him- 
self to the Si)artans. 



STUDY OF HlfciTOKiC GllEECE, Oil HELLAS. 51 

3. LIST OK FAMOUS NAMKS OK THK PKKIOD. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


to 


Cause of Fame. 


AlCECUS. 


Lesl)OS : citi- 


7th 


Lyric poet: that is, wrote short poems 




zen. 




descriptive of feelings, passions, mo- 
mentary impressions; many poems 
on love, on music, on particular 
events and persons ; invented new 
poetic measures. 


Ale man. 


Sardis : said to 


7th 


Lyric poet : made new arrangements 




liave been a 




of music. 




slave. 






Anaximander. 


Miletus. 


6th 


Made the first map, first globe and 
sun-dial ; geographer, astronomer, 
geometrician ; taugiit that the world 
arose from a chaotic mixture of mat- 
ter; philosopher. 


Archilochus. 


Paros : poor ; 


7th 


Lyric poet, writing also on war; in- 




son of slave- 




vented new poetic forms. 




mother. 






Arion. 


Lesbos : trav- 


7th 


Improvised lyric songs and poems at 




elling harper. 




the festivals and at courts; much 
patronized by Periander, the tyrant 
of Corinth. 


Corinna. 


Boeotian. 


6th 


Lyric poetess : teacher of Pindar, from 
whom she took the prize at one of 
the sacred festivals of Thebes. 


Cypselus. 


Tyrant of 
Corinth. 


7th 


See 2. 


Hecataeus. 


Citizen of 
Miletus. 


6th 


Geographer ; philosopher. 


Heraclitus. 


Citizen of 


6th 


Taught that a fiery ether was the 




Ephesus. 




source and original material of the 
universe ; philosopher. 


Hesiod. 


Boeotia (?) : 


8th 


Poet : writing on the gods, on the his- 




citizen. 




tory of creation, and the first racei 
of man ; also, didactic poems, giving 
directions for agriculture. 


Mi\o. 


Crotona, in 


6th 


Athlete : six times crowned victor at 




Italy : citizen 




Olympia, and six times in the Pyth- 




and general. 




ian games, for skill in wrestling. 



62 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


1°^ 


Cause of Fame. 


Phidon. 


Tyrant of 


8th 


Adopted the Asiatic standards of 




Argos. 




weight., measures, and coin, which 
were introduced into Peloponnesus, 
and later into northern Hellas. 


Periander. 


Tyrant of 
Corinth. 


7th 


See 2. 


Pythagoras. 


Samos: tauglit 


6th 


Traveller, geometrician: taught that 




in Magna 




the universe is created after an ex- 




Grfficia; son 




act harmonious order, and that the 




of a rich mer- 




end of human life is virtue ; phi- 




chant; citizen. 




losopher. 


Sappho. 


Lesbos. 


6th 


Poetess: invented new poetic meas- 
ures ; taught poetry and music 
among the women of Asia Minor. 


Solon. 


Athenian citi- 
zen of noble 
birth. 


6th 


Lawgiver and poet (see p. 63). 


Stesichorus. 


Sicily. 


6th 


Lyric poet : made new arrangements 
of verse. 


Terpander. 


Lesbos. 


7th 


Invented a better harp on which to 
accompany the Homeric hymns ; 
gained the prize at a great Lacedas- 
monian festival. 


Thales. 


Citizen of 


6th 


Astronomer, physiologist, geometri- 




Miletus. 




cian : taught that the original element 
of the universe is water, and that 
the universe is animated by a living 
soul ; philosopher. 


Thespis. 


Megara. 


6tli 


First dramatic poet: using for ma- 
terial the stories of Greek mythology. 


Tyrtaius. 


Attica ; lame 


7th 


War songs ; new arrangement of music ; 




schoolmaster. 




poet. 


Xenophanes. 


Lydia (Ionian 


Gth 


Poet, writing on philosophy ; taught 




Greek). 




that there is one God, "neither in 
body like unto mortals, neither in 
mind"; attacked the old religious 
myths. 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 53 

Other famous works of this period: The temple of 
Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus ; of Hera, at Samos ; of Posei- 
don, at Poseidonia (Paestum) in Italy ; three great temples 
at Agrigentum in Sicily ; an artificial harbor at Corinth ; the 
discovery of the casting of bronze in Samos, and of welding 
iron in Chios ; at the latter place was made a famous iron 
stand for a silver censer that the king of Lydia sent to Delphi, 

STUDY ON I, 2, AND 3. 

What two bonds cf union existed among the Dorians? lonians? 
How far was the position of Perioeci or Metics oppressive? In what 
regard was it favorable ? Differences between Helots and slaves. 

Which was the leading Greek state in this period? Name three 
facts which prove it. What were the great centres of Greek life in 
general ? What important common interests had the Greeks ? What 
institutions and what event prove this? If you read that something- 
occurred in the 15th Olympiad, what date will you assign it in our own 
chronology ? With what class of people does the Tyrant seem to have 
been associated, or to have represented? What characterized the 
Greek w^orship? What influence would such a worship have on (a) 
physique, (&) intellect, (c) art? What proofs have we from 2 and 
3 that it did have such an influence in directions (h) and (c) ? Was 
the simplicity of the Olympic prize good or bad ? Why ? 

Name all the directions in which Greek activity turns itself during 
this period. Of these, name the two chief ones. What parts of the 
Greek world manifest this activity ? What reason can you offer for 
this? What stimulated poetry among the Greeks? Art? What 
arts ? What relation between the Tyrants and art and civilization ? 
What was evidently meant by philosophy among the Greeks ? 

What position or station or birth was necessary to acquire greatness 
among the Greeks ? What gave men greatness? Compare with the 
great men and deeds of Egypt and Assyria. What sort of civiliza- 
tion is evidently arising among the Greeks ? 

4. Extracts Illustrative of Period, 

a. The Founding of Gyrene. (Herodotus.) 

As the king of Thera was consulthig the Delphic oracle 
about other affairs, the oracle advised him to f and a colony in 



54 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Libya [Africa]. Accordingly men set sail from Tliera to 
explore, and landing on Platea, an island near the Libyan 
coast, sent back word that they had taken possession of Libya ; 
"the Therseans resolved, therefore, to send one of every 
family " of their own city to the new colony. But nothing 
turning out prosperously, they inquired at Delphi, saying, 
"they had settled in Libya and fared no better." But the 
oracle replied that they had not yet reached Libya ; nor would 
the god "release them from founding the colony until they 
had come to Libya itself." So seeking further, they founded 
Cyrene, establishing there the same religious rites and wor- 
ship they were accustomed to in Thera. 

b. Solon and Croesus. (Herodotus.) 

When Solon, the Athenian, visited Croesus, king of Lydia, 
the latter showed him all his splendid treasures; "and when 
he had seen and examined everything sufficiently, Croesus 
asked him . . . ' Who is the most happy man that you have 
seen?'" Solon answered, " Tellus, the Athenian, because he 
lived in a well-governed commonwealth ; had sons who were 
virtuous and good . . . and coming to the assistance of the 
Athenians in a battle ... he put the enemy to flight, and died 
nobly. The Athenians buried him at the public charge . . . 
and honored him greatly." Croesus then asked for the next 
happiest man whom Solon had seen, and Solon gave the names 
of two youths of Argos, because they had a sufficient fortune, 
and had withal, such strength of body, that they were both 
alike victorious in the public games ; and he added this story, 
that "when the Argives were celebrating a feast of Hera, it 
was necessary that the mother of these youths be drawn to the 
temple in a chariot ; and since the oxen did not come from 
the field in time, the young men . . . drew the car in which 
their mother sate" ; and the men of Argos, who stood around, 
praised the strength of the youths, and "the women blessed 
her as the mother of such sons " ; and after their death, the 
Argives " caused their statues to be dedicated at Delphi." 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 5b 

c. The Lydiaii Kings and Delphi. 

Once, when Alyattes, the father of this Croesus, was making 
war, a temple of Athena was accidentally burned, and shortly 
after he fell sick. " When the disease continued a considerable 
time, he sent messengers to Delphi to consult the oracle. . . . 
The Pythian, however, refused to give any answer . . . until 
the temple of Athena was rebuilt." This then Alyattes imme- 
diately attended to, and shortly after he recovered, and sent 
to Delphi a large silver bowl inlaid with iron. 

The very first of the Lydian kings had been confirmed in his 
kingdom by the Delphic oracle, to which he sent a great quan- 
tity of gold and silver, notably, six golden bowls. Crcesus 
himself, to show his esteem for the oracle, had sent thither the 
figure of a lion in fine gold, bowls of gold and silver of "no 
common work," fine-wrought vases, the statue of a woman, 
and the necklaces and girdles of his wife. 

d. The Marriage of Clisthenes' Daughter. 

Clisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon, had a daughter whom he 
" resolved to give in marriage to . . . the most accomplished of 
all the Greeks. When, therefore, the Olympian games were 
being celebrated, Clisthenes, being victorious in them . . . 
made there a proclamation," inviting to Sicyon " whoever of 
the Greeks deemed himself worthy to become the son-in-law of 
Clisthenes." Thereupon suitors came from Italy and the 
Adriatic shore ; from Peloponnesus and Athens, and even from 
Thessaly and the Hellespont. "When the day appointed for 
the . . . marriage arrived . . . Clisthenes, having sacrificed a 
hundred oxen, entertained the suitors . . . and when they had 
concluded the feast, they had a contest in music and conversa- 
tion, in order to show their powers." One of the Athenians 
now "ordered the flute-player to play a dance; and when the 
flute-player obeyed, he began to dance . . . Laconian figures . . . 
and then Attic ones ; and in the third place, having leant his 
head on the table, he gesticulated with his legs." Then Clis- 
thenes, "no longer able to restrain himself, said. . . 'You 



56 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

have danced away your marriage,'" and chose as his son-in-law 
the Athenian Megacles. The child of this marriage was 
Clisthenes, the Athenian law-giver. 

STUDY ON 4. 

What were the two bonds of union between the mother-city of Thera 
and the colony of Cyrene ? Where have we found these bonds of 
union before ? What sort of power and knowledge displayed by the 
Delphic oracle? What men were most admired among the Greeks 
(their ideals) ? What influence had the Delphic oracle on art through 
its connection with Lydia? Why did Clisthenes choose the Olynipic 
games as the place for his proclamation? What facts justified his 
choice? What does that story tell us of Greek amusements? Of 
Greek refinement? 

In General. — What common bond of union or what common 
interest have all the Greeks ? What bonds of union in their various 
units, — colonies, tribes, amphictyonies, social classes? What do 
the facts of 2, 3, and 4, so far as given, indicate of the position of 
woman? Of individual liberty ? Of the Greek ideal ? Of the leading 
Greek occupation and source of Greek wealth ? How far does each of 
these facts find some explanation in the Heroic Age? It is said that 
Greece was composed of a multitude of little independent states ; what 
reason have you for thinking so from the facts of this period ? 

II. 1. The Constitution and Laws of Sparta, 

The constitution and laws of Sparta were by antiquity 
credited to the Spartan Lycurgus, a man of royal blood 
who was said to have studied the laws of Crete as a 
model for those of Sparta, and whose introduction of 
these laws was sanctioned by the Delphic oracle (see 
p. 35). The following table represents the various parts 
of the state, and their relative duties, according to this 
constitution ; — 



BTUDY OF HISTOKIC GKEECE, OK HELLAS. 



57 





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58 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The So-called institutions of L3^curgus, or laws of 
Sparta, appear in the following account, adapted from 
Plutarch. 

According to the legend, Lycurgus, on going to Delplii, 
obtained the promise that the laws that he should make 
would be the best in the world: returning to Sparta, 
he so arranged matters as to give a piece of land in heredi- 
tary possession to every Spartan family. " Each lot was 
capable of producing . . . enough for health. . . . He also 
introduced . . . public tables, where all Avere to eat in 
common of the same meat, and such kinds as were ap- 
pointed by law." Their food was bread, cheese, figs, and 
wine, with occasional liesh. The women, the men over 
sixty, the children under seveii, ate at home, and on rare 
occasions the citizens were allowed to join them, but not 
even the kings found it easy to gain this permission. 
After dinner " they went home without lights . . . that 
they might accustom themselves to march boldly in tlie 
darkest night. . . . Another law . . . directed that the ceil- 
ings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe, 
and the doors with nothing but the saw. . . . He ordered 
the virgins to exercise themselves in running, wrestling, 
and throwing quoits and darts," that their children might 
be strong and vigorous. 

Every child must be " examined at birth by the most 
ancient men of the tribe. ... If it were strong and well- 
proportioned, they gave orders for its education ; . . . but 
if it were weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be 
thrown . . . into a deep cavern. . . . The nurses accustomed 
the children to any sort of food, to have no terrors in the 
dark, nor to be afraid of being alone. ... As soon as they 
were seven years old, Lycurgus ordered them to be en- 
rolled in companies . . . where they had their exercises 
and recreations in common." These exercises consisted 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 59 

in military and gymnastic drill, in trials of strength and in 
mock-battles. '' They slept in companies, in beds made 
. . . of reeds which they gathered with their own hands. . . . 
The old men were present at their diversions ... to observe, 
instruct, and chastise." 

From childhood they were accustomed to liear all 
the discourses of their elders upon the characters and 
affairs of their countrymen. "If one of them were 
asked, 'Who is a good citizen, or an infamous one?' 
and hesitated in his answer, he vv^as considered a boy 
of slow mind, and of a sort that would not aspire to 
honor. The answer was likewise to have a reason 
assigned for it." 

This manner of life was followed by the Spartan citizens 
till old age. Nor was their life without its pleasures; 
when not engaged in war or drill, they were hunting, 
dancing, or conversing. Such were the institutions of 
Lycurgus, who was afterwards worshipped as a god among 
the Spartans. 

The following are some of the stories told of Spartans : 
A Spartan boy, having stolen a young fox, and concealed 
him under his garment, allowed the creature to tear out 
his vitals with his teeth and claws, rather than suffer 
detection. As to the question whether they should enclose 
Sparta with walls, it was answered, " That city is well 
fortified which has a wall of men instead of brick." 
Xeuxis, one of the most famous of Greek painters, wishing 
to make the most beautiful picture of Venus, sought for 
his models among the Spartan virgins. In one of the 
plays of Aristophanes, an Athenian lady thus addresses 
Lampito, a Lacedtemonian wife, "O dearest Spartan, O 
Lampito, welcome ! How beautiful you look, sweetest one, 
how fresh your complexion ! You could throttle an ox." 
"Yes," says she, "I think I could," A Spartan mother 



60 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

sent her five sons to war, and, knowing that a battle had 
taken place, she waited for news on the outside of the city. 
Some one came up to her and told her that all her sons had 
perished. '* You vile slave," said she, " that is not what I 
wanted to know ; I want to know how fares my country." 
" Victorious," said he. " Willingly then," said she, " do 
I hear of the death of my sons." When Croesus was ad- 
vised by the oracle to obtain a Greek ally in an approach- 
ing war, he sent fur aid to Sparta ; and on one occasion, 
when Athens and Megara had been long at war, they 
left the decision of their quarrel to a commission from 
Sparta. 

STUDY ON II. 1. 

Who compose the Spartan state? What marks a man as a 
Spartan ? In other words, what bonds of union exist among the 
Spartans? Who holds the chief power in the Spartan state ? What 
checks upon this power ? What resemblances do you find between the 
Spartan and the Homeric constitution? What difference? What 
part of the state has lost power since Homeric times? Whom does 
the chief power in this government represent? What takes the 
place nowadays of the general assembly in its function of hearing- 
news, laws, etc. ? What name can you give to this sort of govern- 
ment, — (a) considering Spartans alone? (b) considering all the 
inhabitants of Laconia? 

AVhat gave the institutions of Lycurgus their power over the people, 
and what enabled them to keep that power? AVhat seems to have 
been the great aim of these institutions? How did each provision 
made help to attain that aim? What means had they for training the 
intellect? What elements of character were evidently sought for? 
What sentiment was cherished by the common treatment of all? 
What effect would such institutions have upon the family life? Upon 
the physique? Upon the manners? What adjectives would you apply 
to the Spartan life ? What do you infer as to the position of women 
in such a state? How would labor be regarded in such a state? 
Why? Did the Spartan laws look to the good of the individual, the 
family, or the state ? What does each story told of Sj^arta show as to 
the influence of her discipline ? What was her position among Greek 
states ? What was evidently her ideal ? 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 61 

II. 2. The DeiH'lopwent of the Athenian Constitution, 

a. Athens before Solon. 770-51)4 B.C. 

In Athens, before Solon, every family had its own tomb, 
generally near the house ; here and at the family hearth 
they worshipped together their common ancestor. The 
following is a prayer offered by a daughter at the tomb of 
her father: " Take pity on me and on my brother Orestes ; 
make him return to this country ; hear my praj'er, O my 
father ; grant my wishes, receiving my offerings." If sons 
were adopted, or daughters married into a family, this was 
accomplished by teaching them how to share in its wor- 
ship, which thus became their own. A union of such fam- 
ilies formed a gens or clan., whose members were recog- 
nized " by the fact that they performed sacrifices in 
common." A union of clans formed a hrotherliood., wor- 
shipping some common ancestor or hero. Of such brother- 
hoods were the four Ionic tribes composed ; who, claiming 
a common descent from Ion, tlie son of Apollo, and wor- 
shipping in common at the shrine of Athena on the Acrop- 
olis ^ of Athens, composed the early city of Athens ; only 
these tribesmen were her citizens. Even anion o: the 
tribesmen a distinction liad risen between the "well-born " 
or the Eupatrids^ as they were called, and the " Many^' 
the former claiming to be of purer and nobler Ionic blood 
than the latter. 

Tlie earliest political constitution of Athens was that of 
the Heroic age ; just before the time of Solon, as far as 
known, it appears as follows : — 

1 The hill-fortress and shrine around which Athens was built. 



62 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Parts of the State in 


Way. 


Law. 


Religion, 


Chief-arclion, 




Judges in all family 




a Eupatrifl. 




and clan disputes. 




King-archon, 




Judges in religious 


Offers sacrifices 


a Eupatrid. 


> 


matters. 


and decides on 
religious matters. 


War-archon, 


Commands in 


Judges between citi- 




a Eupatrid. 


war. 


zens and strangers. 




Other archons,^ 


Assist the first 


Assist the first 




Eupatrids. 


three. 


three. 




Areopagus,^ sitting 




Decides, proclaims, 




for life, and 




and judges in re- 




composed of ex- 




gard to all the laws 




archons. 




of the state ; pre- 
serves such rec- 
ords as are made 
of them. 




General Asseinhlij 


Composes 


Probably meets 


Worships together 


of Ionic tribes- 


army and 


to hear the deci- 


at common 


men. 


navy. 


sions of the Areo- 


shrines of 






pagus and archons. 


Athena, and 
honors common 
ancestor. 



STUDY ON a. 

Our own cities are made up of " wards " or districts, which may be 
called the units of which the city is composed ; in Atliens, what units 
do you find? What bonds of union in each of these units? W^hicli 
of these bonds was fundamental and essential? Which class of peo- 
ple held the ruling power ? Which had but little ? What free men 
in Attica had no power ? What fact determined a man's chance for 
power? What resemblances between the constitution of Athens and 
that of Homeric times ? What great changes had taken place ? What 
class had profited by this change ? How had this change probably 



' All the archons were chosen annually from, and probably by, the 
Eupatrids. 



2 In full, the Senate of Areopagus or of Mars' Hill. 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GIlEKCE, OR HELLAS. 63 

affected the influence of the " Many " ? Tf a man were rich but not a 
Kupatrid, what would be true of his political power? What name 
will you give to this form of the Athenian government ? What view 
was evidently taken among the Athenians of the state of the soul after 
death? 

b. The Legislation of Solon.^ 594 b.c. (Abridged from Plu- 
tarch.) 

Solon, being himself of noblest Eupatrid birth, was 
chosen archon for the purpose of composing the difficulties 
of the Athenian state. "A saying of his which he had let 
fall some time before, that 'equality causes no war,' 
was then much repeated, and pleased both the rich and 
the poor." The first of his public acts was to free all 
lands which had been morto^aored and all citizens who had 
been enslaved for debt, and to enact that in future no 
Athenian should pledge his own person as security for his 
debts, nor sell the members of his own family into slavery 
in order to meet his dues. In confirmation of this meas- 
ure, the people offered the sacrifice called " Seisachtheia," 
or the thank-offering for freedom. 

In the next place, Solon took an estimate of the estates 
of the citizens. Those whose yearly income was equal to 
about 700 bushels of barley he placed in the first class. 
The second consisted of those . . . whose lands produced 
between 420 and 700 bushels. In the third class came 
those who were worth from 280 to 420 bushels, and in the 
fourth, all those whose income fell below this : thus the 
Eupatrids and the " Many " often found themselves in the 
same class. 

He next gave Athens the following political constitu- 
tion : — 

1 This legislation affected none but the Ionian " tribesmen " of Attica. 



64 



Sl^UDlES IN GENERAL HtSTORY. 



Parts of the State in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Religion. 


Archons : elected 


1 I 1 
Duties and divisions of labor as before. 


from SoUm's 










first class. 










Areopagus: com- 




Guards the con- 


Has a gener- 


Has a 


posed of ex- 




stitution. 


al oversight 


general 


archons. 






of the state; 
punishes 
men of idle 
and disso- 
lute life. 


over- 
sight of 
relig- 
ion. 


Senate : Four 




Prepares meas- 


Convokes 




hundred loni- 




ures for public 


general as- 




ans, elected 




assembly. 


sembly and 




from the first 






executes its 




three classes of 






decrees. 




Solon. 










General Assenibh/ 


Decides on 


Discusses and 


Elects ar- 




of all four 


peace and 


votes on meas- 


chons and 




classes. Ec- 


war, and 


ures proposed 


senators. 




clesia. 


forms army 
and navy. 


by senate ; forms 
courts of law for 
judgment of 
Athenian citi- 
zens; judges ar- 
chons and other 
magistrates on 
their leaving 
ofiice. 







To this constitution Solon added the following laws: 
that any one, without children, might will away his prop- 
erty as he pleased ; that no one should be obliged to main- 
tain his father, if the latter had not taught him a trade ; that 
trades should be honorable, and that the Areopagus should 
examine into each man's way of life and should punish the 
idle ; that the privileges of the city should be forbidden to 
strangers, except such as were forever exiled from their 



STUDY or ITTSTORTC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 65 

own country, or those who had come to Attica with their 
families for the sake of exercising some trade. 

lie ordered also that women should travel with not 
more than three dresses and with a limited amount of pro- 
vision ; and that in the night they should go only in car- 
riagfes, with torches before them. There should be no 
mourners hired at funerals, nor should an ox be sacrificed 
on these occasions, nor more than three garments buried 
with the body. 

Such weie the laws of Solon ; and they were written 
and placed in the citadel where all could see them, and 
where they were under the care of the divinity of the city. 

STUDY ON b. 

What do you judge to have heen those difficulties at Athens which 
Solon was chosen to " compose " ? Why should the rich have been 
pleased with his saying about equality? Why the poor? What had 
been one great cause of slavery? What did Solon make the basis of 
political power in Athens? 

How did the ease of obtaining poMer under his constitution com- 
pare with the former ease of gaining it ? AVliat new unit appeared in 
the state ? Wliat was the common bond or mark of the men in each 
of these units ? 

In his constitution what people lost political power, comparatively 
speaking? Who gained it? What part of the state gave power? 
What part exercised it ? AVhat class must be favored by those who 
wished to exercise power? What name will you give to this new 
form of government at Athens ? 

What would be the effect of these laws on trade and industry ? 
Which laws of Solon would not be endured among us? Why? 

What great difference do you notice between tlie laws of Solon and 
those of Lycurgus ? In spirit ? In aim ? In both cases, were their 
greatest changes political or social ? 

c. The Tyranny of tlie Fislsiratids. (Abridged from Plutarch 

and Herodotus.) 

Shortly after the new constitution of Solon was given 
to Athens, three contending parties appeared in the state : 



66 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



the party of the Shore, the party of the Plain, and the 
" Mountaineers," among which last was a multitude of poor 
laborers. The leader of the Mountaineers was Pisistratus, 




I. The dwelling of the party of the Shore. II. The dwelling of 
the party of the Plain. III. The dwelling of the " Moun- 
taineers." P P P. Position of Persian fleet after message of 
Themistokles at opening of the battle of Salami's. G. Position 
of Greek fleet at the same time. X. Throne of Xerxes. 

Peiraeus = the port and harbor of Athens. 

of one of the oldest Eupatrid families, related to Solon, and 
in his manners "remarkably courteous, affable, and liberal. 
He had always two or three slaves near him with bags of 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 67 

silver coin ; when he saw any man looking sickly, or heard 
that any died insolvent, he relieved tlie one, and buried 
the others at his own expense. If he perceived people 
melancholy, he inqnired the cause, and if he fonnd it was 
poverty, he furnished them with what might enable them 
to get bread, but not to live idly. Nay, he left even his 
gardens and orchards open, and the fruit free to the citi- 
zens." One day Pisistratus came into the market-place, 
having intentionally wounded himself and his mules, and 
told the people that he had been attacked by his enemies. 
'' Upon this, the multitude loudly expressed their indigna- 
tion . . . and a General Assembly being summoned," a 
motion was carried that Pisistratus have a bodyguard of 
fifty clubmen ; nor did the people " curiously inquire " 
into the number employed, and presently Pisistratus 
seized the citadel, and assumed the government of Athens. 
Herodotus tells us further that he neither disturbed the 
magistracies nor the laws; but presently the parties of the 
Plain and of the Shore, uniting, drove him out. "But 
those who expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with 
one another," and the leader of the Plain, having made 
terms with Pisistratus, on condition of sharing the power, 
contrived with him the following plan : They selected a 
woman of commanding height "and in other respects 
handsome. Having dressed this woman in a complete suit 
of armor, and placed her on a chariot, . . . they drove her 
to the city, having sent heralds before, who . . . proclaimed 
. . . ' O Athenians, receive with kind wishes Pisistratus, 
whom Athena herself . . . now conducts back to her own 
citadel ; ' . . . and a report was presently spread among the 
people that Athena was bringing back Pisistratus; and 
the people in the city, believing this woman to be the god- 
dess . . . received Pisistratus." Not long after, however, 



68 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the parties of the Plain and the Shore again combined 
against his power ; and Pisistratns, hearing of it, with- 
drew from the country for ten years, and collecting as 
much money as possible, hired mercenary forces,^ with 
which he marched against the Athenians and overcame 
them. 

Thus Pisistratns, having for a third time possessed him- 
self of Athens, secured his power more firmly, both by the 
aid of mercenary forces and by revenues, drawn in part 
from the Athenians and in part from the silver mines on 
the Strymon. 

His power being thus established, he introduced new- 
festivals to the gods and improved the old; invited to 
Athens the greatest poets of Hellas; collected the Homeric 
poems ; gave the public access to his library of manu- 
scripts ; adorned the city with new buildings ; supplied it 
with water ; improved the roads of Attica ; improved the 
culture of the olive ; and preserved the forms of the 
Solonian constitution, he himself being always chosen 
the first Archon. At his death, he was succeeded by his 
sons, who ruled in the same way. But the murder of one 
of them by a conspiracy of young Athenians caused the 
other to govern harshly and suspiciously, and to form an 
alliance with Darius, the king of Persia, in order that he 
might have help to uphold his power in Athens. 

About this time the Delphian temple was burnt, and 
the rich and powerful Athenian family of Alcm^eonids, 
that had led the party of the Plain, and had been in exile 
during the Pisistratid tja^anny, took the contract for re- 
building it; and "they constructed the temple in a more 
beautiful manner than the plan required, and . . . built 

1 Men hired to fight for others beside their fellow-countrymen. 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 69 

its front of Parian marble. Accordingly, these men . , . 
prevailed on the oracle, . . . when any Spartans came to 
consult at Delphi, ... to propose to them to free Athens 
from the Tyranny. The Lacediemonians, since the same 
warning was always given them, sent . . . an army to 
expel the Pisistratids, . . , though they were united to 
them by ties of friendship ; for they considered tlieir duty 
to the god greater than their duty to men. Thus the 
Athenians were delivered," and Ilippias, the son of Pisis- 
tratus, becoming an exile, fled to the court of Darius, the 
king of Persia. 

STUDY ON c. 

What fact given on the map shows that Athens was the centre of 
Attica ? Name all the means which Pisistratiis possessed or employed 
for gaining power. Which of these means had he a perfect right to 
employ ? Which w^ere wrong ? What right and what wrong means 
did he choose ? How did the constitution of Solon help him ? What 
relation between his tyranny and the spirit of that constitution ? What 
elements of strength existed in the party of the mountaineers ? Why 
should the mountain-men all go together, and the men of the plain do 
the same ? Why will a paf ty of poor men be more ready for revolu- 
tion and change than one of rich men? What faults on the part of 
the Athenians allowed Pisistratus (a) to establish and (/>) to main- 
tain his tyranny? What really sustained the power of Pisistratus? 
What nominally, and according to the constitution, sustained it? 
AVhat suspicious circumstance appears in this story concerning Del- 
phi? What additional confirmation of the strength of Sparta? What 
resemblances between this tyranny and those before noted? Of what 
use was this tyranny to Athens? 

d. The Legislatio7h of Clisthenes. About 500 b.c. 

The Pisistratids having been expelled, Clisthenes, one 
of the Alcmgeonid family, became the foremost man in 
Athens, and proposed a new constitution, which Avas ac- 
cepted by the people, and consented to by the Delphic oracle. 



70 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



The Athenian state had hitherto consisted simply of those 
who had been born into the four Ionic tribes ; now it was 
to consist of all the free-born native inhabitants of Attica, 
divided ijito ten new tribes according to their places of 
residence. Each tribe took its name from some native 
liero, in whose honor it built a chapel, where the new 
tribesmen worshipped and held their sacred feasts in com- 
mon. Each tribe was composed of demes, or parishes; 
the demes of the same tribe, however, were not all together, 

though all the men of the same 
parish were in the same tribe » 
The accompanying diagram will 
explain: let the large square 
represent Attica, and the small 
squares the demes; demes "a," 
we will say, belong to the first 
tribe, demes " h " to the second, 
" c " to the third, etc. Each 
deme managed its own local affairs ; for those of Attica, 
all the demes met by tribes in Athens, where they formed 
the general Assembl}^, or Ecelesia. The following table 
shows the new constitution. 



a 


b 






a 




b 


a 




c 


c 










b 




b 








r 




a 














c 






c 


a 


c 




b 










a 






b 


c 





Parts of the State in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Archons, chosen by lot 


As befor 


e, but subordina 


te to new 


from three upper classes 




constitution. 




of Solon. 








Strategi : ten generals, one 


Command the 




Convoke Ec 


from each new tribe, an- 


army in turn. 




clesia. 


nually elected from three 








upper classes of Solon. 








Areopagus, as before. 




As before. 




Senate of five hundred ; 


Deliberates on 


" 


Convokes Ec- 


fifty from each new 


foreign af- 




elesia. 


tribe, annually elected. 


fairs. 







STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 



Parts of the State in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Ecclesia: all adult free- 


Composes the 


Adopts or re- 


Elects officers 


born inhabitants of At- 


army and 


jects, after 


and senators, 


tica. 


navy. 


public discus- 


adopts new 






sion, propo- 


citizens into 






sals of Senate 


the Attic 






and magis- 


state. 






trates ; judges 








and ostra- 








cizes. 1 





1 Clisthenes introduced the " ostracism." If any man seemed to be 
gaining great power among the people, the Senate announced that the 
Ecclesia would shortly be called to pass a vote of exile against some 
citizen, no name being announced. Should 6000 votes be cast against the 
same man, he must go into exile for ten years. A smaller number passed 
for nothing. 

On the clay when the Ecclesia met, from the early morn- 
ing " the priests walked around the Pnyx [the meeting- 
pkce of the Ecclesia] immolating victims and calling 
down the protection of the gods. . . . An altar stood near 
the speaker's stand. When all were seated, a priest pro- 
claimed : ' Keep silence, religious silence ; pray the gods 
and goddesses that all may pass most prosperously in the 
Assembly.' Then the people . . . replied : ' We invoke 
the gods, that they may protect the city.' " 

The public income was paid over to " ten treasurers of 
the goddess Athena," one chosen from each tribe ; and the 
treasury was the inner chamber of the Parthenon, the 
temple on the Acropolis. 



STUDY ON (I, 

What is tiie unit in the constitution of Clisthenes? What places 
a man in this new unit ? What interests and duties have these new 
tribesmen in common? in other words, what bond of union in this 



72 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

new unit? Compare the distribution of political power under Clis- 
thenes and under former Athenian constitutions. Compare with the 
Spartan constitution in this respect. What element appears in Athe- 
nian warfare not seen in Spartan ? Compare the three Athenian con- 
stitutions in regard to equality; justice; democracy; the worth of the 
individual man; size of state entering into each. Illustrate each 
answer by facts. AVhat Athenian experience may have suggested the 
ostracism? The separation of the denies of the same tribe ? What 
name will you give to this constitution of Clisthenes? 

What one thing appears as a bond of iniion in all the constitutions? 
What political term derived from deme ? 



C. STUDY m PEESIAN ¥AKS, 490-479 B.C. 

I. First Persian War : Darius against the Greeks, 490 B.C. 
II. Interval of Preparation, 490-480 B.C. 
III. Second Persian War: Xerxes against the Greeks, 480-479 B.C. 

C4iief contemporary authority : Herodotus. Other cliief 
original authority : Plutarch's Lives of Themistocles and 
Aristides. C'hief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius. 

Note on the Map. — Each of the divisions of the Persian Empire 
was called a satrapy, and was ruled by a satrap who was appointed 
by the king and who could manage the satrapy as he pleased, if he 
only kept the peace and sent the king the soldiers and the tribute 
money due. In the time of Clisthenes, Darius was king of the 
Persian Empire and received from it more than $20,000,000 of tribute 
every year. 

STUDY ON MAP AND NOTE. 

Compare the Persian Empire with Greece and the Greek colonies 
in regard to amoimt and distribution of territory. What does the 
distribution of territory indicate in regard to the leading occupation 
in each case? Compare the population of the Greek and Persian 
territories in regard to civilization. What unity did the Persian 
possessions lack which the Greek x:)ossessed? What unity did they 
possess that the Greek lacked? To whom was the Persian Empire 
valuable? Eor what? What was the special value of Phcenicia? 



STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 73 

Of Egypt? Of the Tigro-Euphrates valley? To whom were the 
Greek territories valuable ? Tn case of war, who would be most inter- 
ested in it on the Persian side ? On the Greek side ? 

I. Account of the First Persian War, (Abridged from 
Plerodotus.) 

During the reign of Darius, "some of the opulent men 
[iiristocrats] were exilell from Naxos by the people [dem- 
ocrats], and . . . went to Miletus," asking aid; but the 
Tyrant of Miletus advised them to ask it of Persia. When 
the request came to the ears of Darius, and he heard that 
Naxos was "beautiful and fertile . . . and in it was much 
wealth and many slaves," he decided to give the exiles 
aid. But this expedition sent against the Naxian demo- 
crats was unsuccessful, and the Tyrant of Miletus, who 
had promised King Darius rich returns from it, feared 
that now he would lose his power, if not his life. So 
" he established an equality in Miletus, in order that the 
Milesians might more readily join him in revolt." In 
other Ionian cities, also, he expelled the Tyrants, and estab- 
lished democracies. Sailing then for Sparta, he asked for 
their alliance, using words like these: "Tliat the children of 
lonians should be slaves instead of free is a great disgrace 
and sorrow." But the Spartans turning a deaf ear, he 
sailed to Athens, making the same request. Now the 
Athenians had already declared the Persians their enemies, 
because the Persian ruler at Sardis had ordered them 
to take Hippias again as Tyrant. Wlien the Milesian 
(Aristagoras), therefore, asked for help against the Per- 
sian, the Athenians voted, in public assembly, twenty 
ships for the aid of the lonians. Thus Darius became 
hostile to the Athenians, and, having put down the Ionian 
revolt, resolved to conquer them. But first he sent 
heralds to the various Grecian cities to demand earth and 
water as tokens of submission by land and sea ; and the 



74 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 




STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 76 

islanders unci many Greeks of the continent gave what 
was asked; but Athens and Sparta threw the heralds, the 
former into a pit, the latter into a well, and told them to 
take their earth and water thence. So Darius sent against 
them an army and a navy; and with them came Hippias, 
the Pisistratid. He it was who advised the Persians to 
land at Marathon, where the ground was good for the 
Persian cavalry. " The Athenians . . . also sent their forces 
to Marathon; and ten generals led them, of whom Miltiades 
was the tenth. . . . But first, while the generals were yet 
in the city, they despatched a herald to Sparta. . . . On 
coming into the presence of the magistrates, he said, 
' Lacedaemonians, the Athenians entreat you to assist 
them, and not to suffer . . . [them] to fall into bondage to 
barbarians.' " The Spartans, however, though willing to 
help Athens, " were unwilling to violate their law ; for it 
was the ninth day of the month ; and they said they could 
not march out " until the full of the moon. 

Meanwhile the Persians had landed, and the Athenians 
and their allies were arrayed against them in a place 
sacred to Hercules; but the generals were divided about 
giving battle, half counselling surrender; but the war- 
archon had the casting vote ; him, therefore, Miltiades 
addressed : " ' If the Athenians succumb to the Medes 
[Persians], it has been determined what they are to suffer 
when delivered up to Hippias ; but if the city survive, it 
will become the first of Grecian cities. . . . All these things 
. . . depend on you.' . . . Miltiades, by these words, gained 
over the war-archon, and ... it was determined to engage." 
On the motion of Aristides, also one of the ten stra- 
tegi, the other generals resigned their right of command 
to Miltiades alone. " The Athenians being drawn up in 
battle array, and the sacrifices offered being pleasing 
to the gods, they advanced against the barbarians in 



76 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOKY. 

double-quick time." The battle was long and hard-fought, 
but the Persians, although at least 100,000 strong, while 
the Athenians were but 10,000 men, were driven back to 
their ships ; embarking, they wished " to anticipate the 
Athenians in reaching the city. . . . But the Athenians . . . 
were . . . beforehand " ; so the barbarians " sailed away for 
Asia," and the first Persian war was ended. 

STUDY ON I. 

Who or what decides on what shall be done in the Persian Empire ? 
What sort of a government will you name that of Persia? What is 
the aim of Persian conquest? Prove it. Who or what decides on 
what shall be done in the various Grecian states ? AVhat are the aims 
of the war on the Greek side? What is the political unit on the 
Greek side ; that is, how much of the Greek territory and population 
act together in the matters of war, of peace, of alliance ? What is 
the unit on the Persian side? What forms of government appear 
in the Greek cities at this time, and by whom is each supported? 
Instances. Why does the Tyrant of Miletus fear he will lose his 
power or life? How will "establishing equality " help him? What 
city ranks first in Greece? Proof. What next? Proof. What 
spirit in the Athenians makes them hostile to Persia ? What party 
in Athens will favor Persia? What city has the most sympathy 
with other Greek cities? Proof. What part of the new Athenian 
constitution do we see tested in this war ? To what does it owe its 
success? What good characteristic does Sparta show when Athens 
asks her for help? What is your opinion of it in this particular 
case ? If Persia had conquered, who would have governed Athens ? 
What advantage would Persia probably have gained in this event ? 
What qualities are displayed by the Athenians in the Battle of Mara- 
thon? by the Athenian generals? Comparing Athens and Persia, 
why should Athens beat? Write a comparison between Persia and 
Hellas at 490 B.C. 

II, Account of Interval of Preparation, (Abridged from 

Herodotus.) 

Prom the day of Marathon to the invasion of Xerxes, 
the two men most prominent in Attica were Aristides 



STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 77 

and Themistocles. The former represented the aristo- 
cratic, the latter, tlie democratic elements at Athens; the 
rivalry of their partisans so threatened the prosperity of 
the city, that they appealed to the ostracism, by which 
Aristides was sent into exile. 

It was dnring this time that the Athenians had a 
surplus in the treasury, and the Ecclesia was about to 
vote its equal division among all the citizens ; but The- 
mistocles persuaded them instead to add two hundred 
ships to their navy, arguing that thus they might better 
prosecute the war then going on with ^gina, and also 
be better prepared for any new contest with Persia. 
He also indicated a better harbor for Athens, which 
might be well defended by the use of some of the extra 
funds. 

Meanwhile, Darius had died; but his general, Mar- 
donius, was constantly urging his son and successor, 
Xerxes, to lead an army against Athens, and the Pisis- 
tratids urged him no less. So his satraps gathered troops 
diligently for three years from all parts of the Empire, and 
in the tenth year from Marathon, Xerxes marched towards 
the Hellespont with more than 1,000,000 men of Asia 
and Africa. " On his arrival at Sardis, he . . . sent her- 
alds to Greece to demand earth and water . . . but he sent 
neither to Athens nor Lacedsemon." The Athenians 
at this juncture asked the advice of Delphi, and were 
told that they must " inspire their minds with courage to 
meet misfortunes." Deeply dejected, they sent once more 
to the oracle, and received the answer that Zeus could not 
be propitiated, that the Athenians must withdraw from 
the forces advancing against them, but that Zeus gave a 
"wooden wall" as an impregnable defence, and that 
"divine Salamis" should cause many men to perish. 
Themistocles interpreted this to mean that the Athenians 



78 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORIC 

should make no defence on land, but should cany their 
gods, their families, and their goods to Salauns, while they 
themselves should retreat to the " wooden walls " of their 
ships and meet the Persians by sea. He further said that 
Salamis was called " divine " because there the Persian 
hosts would meet destruction. This interpretation was 
accepted, and it was decided to abandon Attica for the 
straits and the island of Salamis. (See map, p. 6Q.') 

Themistocles also proposed, and the Ecclesia voted, to 
revoke all decrees of banishment or ostracism, especially 
that against Aristides. It was now thought best to call a 
general Hellenic congress, and while the king was yet at 
Sardis, " the Greeks who were better affected towards 
Greece met together [at the Isthmus] . . . and determined 
all existing enmities and quarrels with each other." 
Thus iEgina and Athens made peace ; but Argos, being 
hostile to Sparta, took no part in the council. Ambassa- 
dors were sent even to Sicily to ask the Sicilian Greeks to 
join the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians, and their allies ; 
but the Tyrant of Syracuse would only consent on condi- 
tion of having the command of the war, which neither 
Athens nor Sparta would allow, and so they missed the 
help of Sicily. The Corcyrseans were also asked, and 
promised help ; and preparing their sixty ships, they drew 
near to the Peloponnesus, but there anchored and watched 
how events would turn, thinking, if the Persians won, 
the}^ should get good terms, as not having opposed them ; 
while to the Greeks they excused themselves on account 
of contrary winds, which, they said, delayed them. 

As to the leadership by sea, "from the first there had 
been a talk . . . that it would be proper to trust the navy 
to the Athenians. But as the allies opposed, the Atheni- 
ans gave way, deeming it of high importance that Greece 
should be saved." 



STUDY ON PERSIAN AVARS. 79 



It was also decided at this congress that Greece should 
make her lirst stand against Xerxes at Thermopyhe. 

jNIeanwhile Xerxes advanced to the Hellespont, which 
had been bridged by the Phoenicians and Egyptians; but 
a storm had broken the bridges up ; whereupon Xerxes 
had the engineers beheaded, and the Hellespont scourged 
with 300 lashes, while it was thus addressed: "Thy 
master inflicts this punishment upon thee, because 
thou hast injured him . . . and King Xerxes will cross 
over thee whether thou wilt or not.*' New bridges were 
then built and the army crossed them "under tlie lash": 
the passage occupied seven continuous days and nights. 
In Thrace, the army was numbered, and Herodotus tells 
us that the land forces alone amounted to more than 
1,500,000 ; there were in this army Medes and Persians, 
armed with spears, bows, and daggers; Assyrians, with 
spears, daggers, and clubs knotted with iron ; Scythians, 
with bows, daggers, and battle-axes ; Arabians and Hin- 
doos with bows and arrows ; Ethiopians, painted for 
battle, half in red and half in white, who had arrowheads 
of stone. Herodotus names more than forty different 
nations or tribes in the army, and more than twelve on 
the 1200 ships of the fleet. 

Provisions had been ordered long beforehand for this 
host; heralds had been sent along the route, and every- 
body "made flour and meal for many months . . . fatted 
cattle . . . fed land and water fowl in coops and ponds " ; 
even then, it does not seem that the army was fed more 
than once a day. As Xerxes marched through Thrace 
and Macedonia, the tribes submitted without attempting 
resistance. In Macedonia he received the heralds who 
had been sent out to demand earth and water from the 
Greek cities. Many had submitted, and "against these 
the Greeks who had engaged in war with the barbarians 



80 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTOHY. 

made Ibis solemn oath : . . . ' Whatever Greeks have given 
themselves up to the Persian witliout compulsion, sliall, 
so soon as their affairs are restored to order, ... be 
compelled to pay a tithe to the god at Delphi.' " 

STUDY ON II. 

What sort of a power does Themistocles wish to make of Athens? 
What geograj^hical facts favor this policy? What provision of the 
Clisthenean constitution appears at work in this interval? What 
advantage does it give the state? What new Greek organization 
appears during this time, and what has produced it? In order to 
carry any political or military measure at Athens, what is necessary? 
What is necessary to accomplish it in Persia ? What characteristics 
shown by the Athenians in the various incidents of the interval? 
What by Themistocles? "What spirit is displayed by the Tyrant 
of Syracuse ? By the Corcyraeans ? The Argives ? What new proof 
have we that Hellas is composed of independent states ? What 
power in Greece is acknowledged to have aright to hold any individual 
Greek state responsible? Name two occasions in which Athens 
probably saves Greece during this time. How does she do it each 
time? How are the forces of Xerxes governed? How is his army 
a strong one ? How weak ? How does he conquer Thrace and Mace- 
donia? AVhat Greek city is alone able to meet the Persian fleet? 

III. Account of Second Per sian War, (Abridged from 
Herodotus.) 

1. According to the decision of the Hellenic congress 
at the Isthmus, a force of Greeks was sent to await the 
Persians at Thermopylae. This force consisted of 300 
Spartans and about 5000 otlier Greeks, whom Leonidas, 
king of Lacedeemon, was commanding. The Spartans 
sent so few because a religious festival was then being 
beld, and, moreover, it was the season of the Olympic 
games. Xerxes having l)een informed of this, asked what 
could be the reward for which they so earnestl}^ contended 
in tbese games. On being answered, " An olive-wreath," 



STUDY ON 3'EllSrAN WAKS. 



81 



one of his nobles standing l)y exclaimed, "Heavens, 
Mardonius, against what kind of men have you brought 
us to fight, who contend not for wealth but for glory 1 " 
Arriving near Thermopyhc, Xerxes " let four days pass, 
constantly expecting the Greeks to take to flight. But 
on the fifth day, . . . being enraged," he sent men against 
them " to take them alive " ; so many of the Persians, 
hov/ever, fell, that the king saw that he had "many men, 



Pass of Thermopylae 




Route of Xer;^es aroun 



^Ss. 



THERMOPYLAE. '''^'' m 



but few soldiers." Thereupon he sent his choicest war- 
riors ; these, too, were beaten back Avith great loss. 

While the king was in doubt what next to do, a Malian 
Greek informed him of a mountain path around the pass. 
Along this way the Persians marched all night. " Morn- 
ing appeared, and they were on the summit of the moun- 
tain. ... To those of the Greeks who were at Tliermopylse, 
a priest, having inspected the sacrifices, first made known 
the death that would befall them," and shortly news came 



82 STUDIES IK GEKERAL HiSTORYo 

of "the circuit the Persians were taking. . . . Upon this, 
tlie Greeks lield a consultation, and . . . some departed and 
. . . others prepared to remain." Among the latter were 
Leonidas and the Spartans, who " could not honorably 
desert the post which they originally came to defend." . 
Nor did Leonidas fear for Sparta, but thought by remain- 1 
ing to gain glory for himself and safety for lier ; since the 
Delphic oracle had already foretold that, in this war, 
either Sparta or her king must perish. The Thespians 
also remained with the Sj^artans. 

About noon the fight began. "Great numbers of the 
barbarians fell ; for the officers of the companies flogged 
their men forward with scourges, thus urging them on ; 
from which it occurred that many fell into the sea, and 
many more were trampled . . . under foot." Leonidas 
fell, but the Greeks fought on — with swords when their 
javelins were broken, with hands and teeth when swords 
were gone — until, at last, they were overwhelmed with 
barbarian missiles. " In honor of the slain . . . the follow- 
ing inscription was engraved over them : ' Four thousand 
from Peloponnesus once fought on this spot with 300 
myriads ' . . . and for the Spartans in particular was 
written : ' Stranger, go tell the Laced semonians that here 
we lie, obedient to their commands.' . . . The Delphic 
Amphictyons are the persons who honored them with 
these inscriptions. . . . Thus the Greeks fought at Ther- 
mopylae." 

STUDY ON I. 

What sort of unity had the Persian forces? What sort did they 
lack? Same of Greek forces. Which side had the best organization 
for war ? How M^as the other side compensated for this lack ? AVhat 
new proof have we that the object of the Persian Empire was wealth? 
Why are men that fight for glory Avorse foes than those who fight for 
wealth ? Why was Thermopylae well chosen ? Why should Xerxes 
expect the Spartans to flee? Explain the phrase "many men, but 



STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 83 

few KolJiers." What spirit did Leonidas show? the Spartans? To 
whom was a leader more necessary, the Persians or the Spartans? 
Two proofs. Name all the facts in this- war that would prove tin; 
statement, "The Greeks honored their gods." 

2. The Persians, then advancing, wasted the fields and 
burned tlie cities as they went; and the Athenians began 
to send away their families to the islands; the faster, 
because the priestess announced that the goddess Athena 
had left the Acropolis. 

The fleets of either side had been stationed near Ther- 
mopylae, but, on receiving news of the battle there fought, 
the Greeks sailed for Athens, putting in at Salamis, and 
the Persians followed. The Grecian fleet, though fur- 
nished by Athenians, Isthmians, and Islanders, was under 
the command of the Spartan Eurybiades, who, after reach- 
ing Salamis, quickly called a council of commanders to 
I decide where to engage the Persians ; the council decided 
to retreat to the Isthmus, and there defend Peloponnesus, 
since Athens was now burned and Attica wasted. An 
Athenian, however, going to Themistocles, argued that if 
I once the ships left Salamis, no power would keep them 
'from dispersing. Themistocles thereupon begged Eurybi- 
ades to call another council, and therein advised the 
Greeks to remain in the Salaminian Straits rather than 
retire to the open waters near the Isthmus (see map, 
p. 66^ ; he reminded them, too, of the words of the oracle 
concerning " divine Salamis," and finally threatened that 
if the allies would not remain, the Athenians would at 
once set sail for Italy, and there found a new Athens. 
Thus persuaded, the allies remained. "Day came, and at 
sunrise an earthquake passed over land and sea." The 
Greeks invoked the aid of the gods, as the Persians " drew 
up near, taking their stations in silence." News came 
now that the Persian army was advancing upon the 



84 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Isthmus, whereupon the Peloponnesians in the fleet once 
more called a council, still wishing the ships to retire from 
Salamis. Themistocles, no longer able to dissuade them, 
secretly sent word to the Persians to close both ends of 
the Salaminian Strait, and thus the Persians did, under » 
cover of the night. " While the generals were disputing, 
Aristides . . . crossed over from JEgina," and called 
Themistocles out of council, and said, " It is right that we 
should strive . . . which of us shall do the greatest service 
to our country. . . . We are on all sides surrounded by the 
enemy. Go in, therefore, and acquaint them with this." 
Themistocles replied, "You . . . have brought good news. . . . , 
Know, then, that this . . . proceeds from me. For, since ; 
the Greeks would not willingly come to an engagement, , 
it was necessary to force them against their will. But do 
you . . . announce it to them yourself; for if I tell them, I 
shall appear to speak from my own invention." Aristides : 
then entered the council, and told them that they were; 
surrounded by the enemy, and must prepare to fight 
Themistocles also spoke with rousing eloquence. The; 
poet ^Eschylus thus describes the battle, which ended in 
the victory of the Greeks : — 

"When now the Day, drivhig white steeds, filled the wide 
earth with glory, a shout from the Greeks rang forth, greeted 
Echo like a song, and Echo answered from the island-rock, 
inspiring. Then terror fell on the Persian ships and tents ; . . . 
not for flight were the Greeks chanting their solemn paeans, but 
for proud and daring battle. The clanging trumpet fired thein 
line ; instant at the word they smote the roaring brine with 
dashing oars. . . . Tlien we heard the mighty shout : ' On, Sons ' 
of the Greeks, free your land, your children, and your wives 
the temples of the gods and the tombs of your fathers ' Tf h 
day decides for all.' 

"... Then ship dashed brazen prow at ship. ... At first I 
indeed, the strong stream of the Persian fleet withstood th( ' 






STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 85 

onset ; but we were massed within the strait, while they, 
awkwardly crowding, struck each other with their brazen beaks ; 
. . . but the Greeks were skilfully smiting them round about on 
every side. . . . The shores and rugged rocks were lined with 
dead. . . . Never fell in a single day so many men." 

STUDY ON 2. 

Why are the Athenians in greater haste to leave Athens because 
the goddess has left? What reason is there to think that the Greeks 
will disperse if once they leave Salamis ? What geographical advan- 
tage in Salamis? What three different ki-nds of argument does 
Themistocles employ to keep the Greeks at Salamis? What spirit 
is shown by Sparta at this time? Theuiistocles? Aristides? How 
do you know which of these men has the greater character for hon- 
esty? Who is the real commander at Salamis? What makes him 
so? What is the point of his sending word to the Persians to close 
the straits ? What does the event of Salamis prove in regard to the 
., policy of Themistocles from 490 to 480? 

3. After Salamis, the Greeks divide the booty, dedicating 
the first fruits of their victory to Delphi. Xerxes hastily 

; returns to Persia, leaving picked forces with Marclonius, 
with which to " reduce Greece to slavery." After wintering 

: in Thessaly, Mardonius marched into Greece. Before 

[ starting, he sent ambassadors to the Athenians, hoping to 
make them his allies, and promising them forgiveness, the 
restoration of their lands, and the rebuilding of their 
temples, if they would but be friendly to the Great King. 

I Sparta, fearing lest Athens might yield, also sent her an 
embassy, promising aid in case of war. To the Persian 

! messenger, the Athenians replied, '^ We will defend our- 
selves in such manner as we are able. But do not attempt 
to persuade us to come to terms with the barbarians, for 
we will not be persuaded. Go, then, and tell Mardonius 
that ... so long as the sun shall continue in the same 
course as now, we will never make terms with Xerxes, but 



86 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

will go out to oppose him, trusting in the gods, who fight 
for us." To the Spartans they answered, " There is not 
so much gold anywhere in the world, nor a country so 
preeminent in beauty and fertility as to persuade us to 
side with Persia in enslaving Greece. For there are many 
and powerful considerations that forbid us to do so, even 
if we were inclined. First and chief, we must avenge to 
the uttermost the images and dwellings of the gods now 
burned and laid in ruins. . . . Secondly, the Grecian race 
being of the same blood, and of the same language, and 
having the temples and sacrifices of the gods in common . . . 
for the Athenians to betray these would not be well. 
Know, therefore.. . . that so long as one Athenian is left 
alive, we will never make terms with Xerxes." 

Mardonius, receiving this answer, advanced towards 
Athens. On reaching Thebes, the Thebans advised him 
not to fight the Greeks, but to " send money to the chief 
men in each city," and thus "split Greece into parties, 
and . . . subdue those not on your side." Mardonius, how- 
ever, did not take this advice, but marched on and met 
the Greeks in battle at Plata3a. In this battle the Spar- 
tans held one wing, wliile the Arcadians and the Atheni- 
ans each claimed the honor of leading the other ; the 
Arcadians because they had always had it, the Athenians 
because of their deeds, especially at Marathon. But the 
Athenians left it to the Lacedaemonians, saying, " ' It is 
not becoming on such an occasion as this to contend about 
position. . . . Command us as ready to obey.' . . . And the 
whole army of Lacedaemonians shouted out that the 
Athenians were more worthy to lead the wing than the 
Arcadians." Sacrifices having been offered by either 
army, the battle began. In this fight Mardonius fell, and 
the Greek victory was complete. A tenth of the rich 
spoils was given to Delphi. Thus the army of Xerxes 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 87 

was finally overthrown, and on the same day his fleet 
was beaten by Greek ships at My c ale. These two battles 
effectively broke the strength of the Persian. 

STUDY ON 3. 

How does Mardonius try to conquer Athens? What makes him 
naturally suppose this plan would succeed? What three feelings 
are shown by the Athenians ? What do they name as the bonds of 
Hellenic union ? Who puts Greece in the greater danger, the Thebans 
or Mardonius? Why? What reason have the Thebans to give the 
advice they do? In the Battle of Platsea, what spirit is shown by 
the Athenians? What proofs have w^e that war is a religious act 
among the Greeks ? 

In General. — In what cases in the Persian wars does the Greek 
action depend on single men ? How are these men able to accomplish 
their will? What is the use of the Battle of Thermopylae? What 
city of Greece deserves the lead at the close of the wars ? Wliy ? 
What results of Greek organization appear in the Persian wars? 
(a) at Thermopylae? (b) at Salamis? 



D. STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP (AGE OF 
PERICLES), 479-431. 

Chief contemporary sources: Herodotus, Thucydides; 
the plays of Euripides, Aristophanes, and the other lit- 
erary remains of the period; the monuments and remains 
of Athens, — notably the Parthenon, the temple erected 
on the Acropolis in honor of Athene, and the fragments 
of Parthenon sculpture known as the " Elgin marbles," 
and now in the British Museum. 

Other original sources: Plutarch, Xenophon, Aristotle, 
Plato, and the extant wiitings of the philosophers, 
orators, and sophists of the generation succeeding this 
age. 

Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius, Lloyd. 



88 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 




STUDY OX THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 89 

1. Hiunmavy of Vv'uicipal Invents, (Quotations from Tliucy 
(lides unless otlierwise indicated.) 

Battles of Plata3a and Mycale; after Plataea, 
Aristides proposed a general Hellenic confed- 
eracy against the Persians ; to this the Greeks 
consented. After Mycale, the Saraians, Chians, and Les- 
bians were admitted into this confederacy, and the allied 
Greeks sailed for the Hellespont ; all save the Peloponne- 
sians . . . who decided to sail away home. Under the lead 
of the Athenians, the allies recovered Lesbos. — State 



479 

TO 

478. 




SCULPTURE FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE. 

offices were opened to all classes of Athenian citizens. — The 
Athenians " set to work rebuilding the city and the walls. 
. . . The Lacedsemonians would rather themselves have 
seen neither the Athenians nor any one else protected by 
a wall ; and their allies dreaded not only the Athenian 
navy, . . . but also the spirit which had animated them in 
the Persian war. So the Lacedgemonians asked them not 
to restore their walls." But the Athenians, " men, women 
and children," urged on and advised by Themistocles, 
completed them, before the Spartans could prevent. The 



90 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

spoils of Mycale were devoted to adorning public gardens 

and porticoes. 

The Hellenic allies under the lead of the 
Spartan king, Pausanias, sailed for Byzantium, 
which they recovered from the Persians. But 



477 

TO 
467. 



Pausanias had already begun to be despotic, and " the 
allies were offended . . . and had recourse to . . . the 
Athenians, begging them to be their leaders. . . . Thus 
the Athenians obtained the leadership. They immediately 
fixed which of the cities should supply money and which 
. . . ships for the war against the Barbarian." Aristides, 
then commander of the Athenian fleet, was chosen by 
desire of the allies to determine the amount and manner 
of this tribute for each. "Then was first instituted at 
Athens the office of Hellenic Treasurers, who received 
the tribute. . . . The island of Delos [sacred to Apollo] 
was their treasury, and tlie meetings of the allies were 
held in the temple there. The allies were at first inde- 
pendent, and deliberated in a common assembly under the 
leadership of Athens." 

Cimon, son of Miltiades, then took command of the 
allied fleet, and freed the northern coast of the iEgsean 
from the Barbarian. 

The treasury was transferred to Athens, and many of 
the allies began to pay in money instead of in men and 
ships. 

The island of Scyros, with its fine harbor, was rid of 
pirates and settled by Athenians. 

The Naxian allies revolted, and the Athenia 

made war against them. . . . This was the fii 

of the allied cities Avhich was subjugated contrary 



467 

TO 
461. 



Ot 

i 



to the agreement." About the same time, the Thasian 
allies revolted, quarreling with Athens concerning their 
rights to a market and some mines near by. Athens 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 91 

subduing them, compelled them to pull down their walls, 
deliver up their ships, pay tribute, surrender their claims 
to the mine and the market. — Pericles carried the meas- 
ure of the " Theoricon," by which every Athenian citizen 
might obtain from the public treasury, now well-filled by 
the allies, the money necessary to attend the theatre. 
The citizens now also began to receive pay for serving in 
the army and in the courts. — The Helots, aided by the 
Messenians, revolted against the Spartans. 

The Spartans, liard pressed, called to their aid 
the Athenians, who sent them a force under 
Cimon ; but after its arrival, the Lacedaemonians, 



461 

TO 
450. 



"fearing the boldness and the progressive spirit of the 
Athenians, and moreover considering that they were of a 
different race from themselves, dismissed them alone of 
all the allies." The Athenians therefore broke their alli- 
ance with Sparta, and ostracizing Cimon, who liad per- 
suaded them to send her aid, followed rather the lead of 
Pericles, joined themselves to the enemies of Sparta 
abroad, and reduced the power of the Areopagus at home. 
The Phocians attacked towns in Doris and 



458 

took control of the Delphic oracle ; the Spartans I to 

interfering, restored the Doric towns and Delphi I !££:_• 

to their previous possessors, strengthened the Oligarchs of 
Thebes and the neighboring towns, and occupying the for- 
tress of Tanagra, threatened Athens. At their departure, 
tlie Athenians at once restored the democrats of the 
Boeotian towns to power. Soon after, the iEginetans 
came to terms with the Athenians, "dismantling their 
walls, surrendering their ships, and agreeing to pay 
tribute." 

The Messenians and Helots were conquered by Sparta ; 
the Messenians, banished from Peloponnesus, were settled 
by the Athenians in one of their own towns. 



92 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

'450^ Five years' trace between Athens and Sparta.— 
TO ! Pericles proposed a Pan-Hellenic convention "to 

'—^ consult about rebuilding the Grecian temples 

which the barbarians had burnt, and about providing 
those sacrifices which had been vowed, during the Persian 
war, for the preservation of Greece, and likewise to enter 
into such measures as might secure navigation and main- 
tain the peace. ... It took no effect, however, nor did the 
cities send their deputies ; the reason of which is said to 
be the opposition of the Lacedsemonians." — About this 
time new offices were established at Athens, for protecting 
streets and markets, preserving just standards of weight 
and measure, and overseeing the storing and sale of 
grain. 

It is reported that the Persians now made peace with the 
Athenians, promising the independence of the Asiatic 
Greeks, and agreeing that no Persian ship should appear 
in the JEgsean or the Bosphorus. — The exiled Theban 
Oligarchs [aristocrats] fought and defeated the Athenians 
at Coronea. — Thirty years' peace was agreed upon between 
Sparta and Athens. 

Pericles thoroughly organized the citizen-jury assem- 
blies, and obtained that those who served upon them 
should be paid by the city from the treasury, now richly 
supplied by the confederacy. 

"Now war broke out between the Samians and Mile- 
sians . . . ; and the Milesians being worsted . . . went to 
the Athenians, . . . some private individuals from Samos 
itself taking part with them, from a wish to effect a 
revolution. . . . The Athenians therefore sailed to Samos 
[Pericles commanding] . . . and established a democracy." 
The exiled Oligarchs, then hiring troops, returned and 
re-established their power ; but the Athenians, again 
investing Samos, entirely reduced it, compelling it to " dis- 



STUDY OX THE ATHP^NIAN LKADERSHIP. 93 

mantle its wall, deliver up its ships, and pay the cost of 
the war." 

STUDY ON I. 

AVhy were Sestos and Byzantium important to gain? How and 
when had the Greeks learned this ? To which Greek state were they 
the most important, and why ? What was the character of Aristides 
among the allies ? Prove it. 

Part of this period is called that of the Athenian leadership, and 
part that of the Athenian empire ; when and why will you apply each 
term ? Why was it necessary for every member of the Confederacy 
of Delos to be held to that union by Athens? What difference be- 
tween this and former Hellenic unions ? What new bond of union 
in it ? How did Athens obtain leadership ? How empire ? How did 
she use her imperial power ? Her imperial wealth ? What seems to 
liave been the chief occupation of the Athenians ? Prove it. What 
policy adopted by the allies weakened themselves and strengthened 
Athens ? Do you consider the Confederacy of Delos a failure or a 
success ? To whom or what do you attribute this ? What party ruled 
in Athens ? What proof of this ? How could its leader carry its 
measures ? What measures of this period were characteristic of the 
ruling party? "What inconsistency between the rule of Athens at 
home and abroad ? 

What seems to have been the state of affairs everywhere within the 
cities at this time? What is the attitude of Athens toward these 
affairs? of Sparta? What is the general relation of the Greek states 
to each other ? to Athens ? W^here alone do we find a sentiment of 
Panhellenism ? When does this appear ? 

2. Suminary of Events from 435 to 431. 

Tlie affair of Corcyra and declaration of the Pelofon- 
nesian war. — These things occurred as follows : In the 
city of Epidamnus, a colony of Corcyra, herself colonized 
from Corinth, the aristocrats were driven out by the 
democrats ; the exiles '' went over to the barbarians, and, 

uniting witli them, plundered the remaining inhabitants 

These, finding themselves hard-pressed, sent an embassy to 



94 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the mother-city, Corcyra, begging the Corcyrseans not to 
leave them to their fate. . . . But the Corcyraeans would 
not listen." The Epidamnians then asked at Delphi if 
they should send for aid to the Corinthians as being their 
first founders, and " the god answered that they should. . . . 
The Corinthians took up their cause, partly . . . because 
they hated the Corcyrseans, who were their own colony, 
but slighted them and often boasted that they were far 
superior to the Corinthians by land and sea. Irritated by 
these causes of offence, the Corinthians were too happy to 
assist the Epidamnians. . . . Great was the rage of the 
Corcyrseans when they found . . . tliat the colony had 
been given up to the Corinthians. They at once set sail . . . 
and bade the Epidamnians receive the exiled Oligarchs, 
who had . . . implored the Corcyrieans to restore them, 
appealing to the tie of kindred, and pointing to the sepul- 
chres of their common ancestors. . . . But the Epidamnians 
would not listen. . . . Whereupon the Corcyrseans attacked 
them." When the Corinthians heard of this, they set sail 
to help the Epidamnian democrats; but were badly de- 
feated by the Corcyrseans, who then "sailed about plun- 
dering the Corinthian allies." For two years the Corin- 
thians took the utmost pains to collect a great fleet; "and 
the Corcyrseans, in alarm . . . determined to go to Athens 
. . . and get what help they could." The Athenians, 
having "no mind to let Corcyra and her navy fall into 
the hands of the Corinthians," consented to the alliance, 
and Corinth was again defeated by the help of the Atheni- 
ans. The Corinthians, irritated by this and other events, 
now called for an assembly of the allies at Sparta, and war 
was declared by the Peloponnesians against the Athenians, 
unless the latter would restore independence to the allies; 
on the motion of Pericles, it was answered that they would 
do this if the Spartans would allow their subject states 



RTTTDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEllSHIP. 



9o 



the government eficli desired. Pericles also asked that 
arbitration, instead of war, should settle their difficulties. 
As the Lacedaemonians made no reply, both parties pre- 
pared for war. 

At the opening of this war, the chief allies of the 




MOSAIC PATTERN. 

Prom tlio floor of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The outside border is a variation of 
the " Greek Fret," and the inside border a raodification of the favorite convention- 
alized honey-suckle; the central design represents a Triton blowing his " wreathed 
horn." 



Athenians were Islanders and Greeks of the Thracian and 
Asiatic coasts ; with the Spartans stood most of the Pelo- 
ponnesians, and the states north of the Corinthian Gulf, 



96 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



STUDY ON 2. 

Why did Athens not wish Corinth to have Corcyra? What 
motives appeared in the conduct of each Greek state from 435 B.C. 
onward? What spirit? What seems to have been the general com- 
plaint of the Athenian leadership? of the Spartan? What state 
showed most civilization in the declaration of war? What general 
geographical difference between the Athenian and the Spartan grouj) of 
states at the close of this period ? What reason can you give for this 
difference? What geographical advantage has each group? Name 
the successive steps by which the Peloponnesian War was brought on. 
What strikes you as its cause? If the affair of Corcyra had not 
occurred, would war have followed ? Sustain your oj)inion. 

3. List of Famous Greeks living 479-388 B.C. 

Those marked with a * belong to the age of Pericles, 
those with a f to the age of the Pelojjonnesian War, those 
with a J to that of the Persian War, and those unmarked 
to period 400-338. 



Name. 


Birth, Circumstance, 
and Training. 


Cause of Fame. 


vEschylus,*J 


Athenian 


Author of sixty or more tragedies 




citizen, . . . 


founded on Greek myths, except the 
" Persians," whicli tells tlie story of 
the battle of Salamis. Introduces 
dialogue and action into dramatic 

writing. 


JEschines, 


Athenian 


Father of extemporary oratory amongst 




citizen; actor, 


the Greeks; party opponent of De- 




soldier, law- 


mosthenes before Ecclesia. 




yer's clerk. 




Anaxagoras,* 


Asia Minor; 


JNLathematician and astronomer ; as- 




citizen of 


serts mind to be the originating 




Ionian Greek 


cause of the universe ; philosopher. 




city. 




Aristides,*J 


Athenian citi- 


Party leader; general and naval 




zen of noble 


commander. (See " Summaries of 




family. 


Events.") 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 



97 



Name. 


Bitth, Circumstance, 
and Training. 


Cause of Fame. 


Aristophanes,! 


Atlionian 


Author of more tlian forty comedies. 




citizen. . . . 


satirizing political and military 
events, the people and magistrates of 
Athens, Socrates and the Sophists,' 
Euripides and other contemporaries. 


Aristotle, 


Citizen of Sta- 


Tutor of Alexander the Great, after- 




gira, a Greek 


ward public teacher at Athens; 




colony in 


writes more than four hundred works 




Macedonia ; 


on politics, rhetoric, and literature. 




pupil of Plato. 


morals, natural history; philosopher. 


Demostlienes, 


Citizen of 


Speeches before Ecclesia, especially 




Athens ; stud- 


the "Philippics" directed against 




ied with fine 


Philip of Macedon, whose most dan- 




orators. 


gerous enemy was Demosthenes. 


Euripides,* 


Athenian citi- 


Author of seventy-five tragedies, found- 




zen; finely 


ed on Greek myths and stories, but 




educated; 


often adapted to contemporary polit- 




special athle- 


ical circumstances. 




tic training. 




EpaminondaSjt 


Theban citizen 


Founder of Theban leadership. (See 




of fine family, 


" Summary of Events.") 




educated in 






military tac- 






tics, gymnas- 






tics, philoso- 






phy, litera- 






ture. 




Gorgias,t 


Sicilian-Greek 


Sophist at Athens ; speculator in the- 




citizen of 


ology; philosopher; still more famous 




noble birtli; 


as a rhetorician. 




trained by 






noted philos- 






ophers. 





1 This name was given at Athens to men who taught for pay ; they 
professed to prepare young men, as Isocrates said, " to think, speak, and 
act " so as to become influential aad typical Athenians. 



98 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 


Birth, Circumstance, 
and Training. 


Cause of Fame, 


Herodotus *J 


Greek citizen of 


Historian of the conflicts of the Greeks 




Asia Minor ; 


and Persians, embodying in his ac- 




travelled 


count many valuable observations on 




through 


the manners, customs, institutions, 




Egypt, Phoe- 


beliefs, and ideas of the world of 




nicia, Pales- 


his own day. 




tine, Tigro- 






Euphrates 






valley (?), 






along the 






iEgaean and 






Black Sea 






coasts. 




Hippocrates, 


Greek citizen of 


The first to discard superstition an<l 




Cos; studied 


base medical practice on observed 




medicine and 


facts ; wrote on medicine and sur- 




philosophy at 


gery. 




Cos; trav- 






elled widely; 






physician and 






teacher at 






Atiiens. 




Isoc rates, 


Rich Atheninn 


Sophist; pupil of Gorgias; essayist 




citizen ; 


and orator. 




trained in 
music, gym- 
nastics, litera- 
ture; pupil 
of Gorgias. 
(See p. 97.) 




Cimon,*J 


Athenian citi- 


Party leader at Athens; naval com- 




zen of noble 


mander and general. (See " Sum- 




birth. 


maries of Events.") 


Myron,*! 


Boeotian ; stud- 


Bronze statues of gods and Olympian 




ied with an 


victorSo 




Argive mas- 






ter-sculptor 





i 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP 



91) 



Name. 



Birth, Circumstance, 
and Training. 



Cause of Fame. 



IVricles,^ 



Phidias,^ 



Pindar,*! 



Plato.t 



Polycletiis,t 



Polygnotus,t 



Praxiteles, 



Athenian citi- 
zen of noble 
Lirth; trained 
in philosophy, 
oratory, liter- 
ature, gym- 
nastics, music. 

Atlienian citi- 
zen; studied 
with artists 
and sculptors. 

Theban citizen 
of noble 
family ; 
educated 
in music 
and poetry. 

Citizen of 
Athens; pu- 
pil of Socra- 
tes ; educated 
in gymnastics, 
poetry, music. 

Citizen of Sicy- 
on ; pupil of 
Phidias. 

Thasian ; of a 
family of 
artists, who 
instructed 
and trained 
him ; adopted 
citizen of 
Athens. 

Athenian. . . . 



L.ofC. 



Party leader and orator at Atliens ; 
general and admiral. (See" Summa- 
ries of Elvents.") 



Designs for the Parthenon and the 
temple of Olympian Zeus at Olym- 
pia; statues of Athena and Zeus, 
and the "Elgin marbles." 

Odes in praise of victors in tlie games ; 
fragments of many other lyric poems. 
Counted the foremost lyric poet of 
Greece. 



" Dialogues " upon subjects of mental, 
moral, and social philosophy; phii 
osopher. 



Statues, mostly of athletes. 



Interior painted decorations of tem])lc 
of Theseus at Athens, and temple at 
Delphi; chief artist of the famous 
"Painted Porch" at Athens; chose 
his subjects from Greek myths. 



Statue of Hermes ; portrait-statues of 
contemporaries; his "Marble Faun" 
is preserved in copies. 



100 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 


Birth, Circumstance, 
and Training. 


Cause of Fame, 


Simonides,*J 


Citizen of Ceos, 


T^yric poet ; famous poems on subjects 




of good fami- 


connected with Persian wars. 




ly ; trained in 






music and 






poetry. 




Socrates*! 


Athenian citi- 


Dialogues with Athenian citizens upon 




zen; son of a 


subjects of mental, moral, and social 




sculptor; stud- 


philosophy, touching often upon the- 




ied sculpture. 


ology. 


Scopas, 


Parian; of a 


Engaged with three other Attic mas- 




family of ar- 


ters on the Mausoleum ; i supposed 




tists ; worked 


sculptor of the famous group of 




in Athens. 


Niobe and her children. 


Sophocles,* 


Athenian citizen, 


Author of about seventy tragedies, 




of good fami- 


founded upon Greek mytlis and 




ly ; trained in 


stories, with suspected references to 




music, gym- 


contemporary events. 




nastics, litera- 






ture. 




ThemistocIes,*J 


Athenian citizen 


Party leader and orator at Athens; 




of good fami- 


naval commander. (See "Summa- 




ly ; trained in 


ries of Events.") 




gymnastics, 






oratory. 






music, poetry. 




ThucydideSjt 


Athenian citi- 
zen of good 
family. . . . 


Historian of Peloponncsian war. 


Xenophon, 


Athenian citi- 


Historian and general of the " Re- 




zen ; pupil of 


treat of the Ten Thousand " ; - his- 




Socrates ; 


torian of contemporary and otlier 




soldier of 


Greek events. 




fortune. 





1 The monument raised by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to her husband 
I\f(U(solas. 2 'X'l^e retreat of ten thousand Greeks employed by Cyrus the 
Younger, from near Babylon to the coasts of Asia Minor; it was a march 
of nearly 1500 miles, through a hostile and unknown country (401-400). 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 



101 



STUDY ON 3 AND ON PICTURES. 

What seems to be the centre of Greek greatness during this time ? 
What kinds of greatness centred there? What reason have we for 
calling Greek literature — dramatic, historical, and oratorical — origi- 
nal? Illustrate from each kind. Name three things that seem good 




ZEUS OF OTRICOLE. 
Late Greek work; possibly after Phidean Zeus. 

to you about the Parthenon (p. 88) ; the Parthenon frieze (p. 89) ; 
the Olympic Mosaic (p. 95) ; the head of Zeus (p. 101) ; the Venus 
of Melos (p. 103). 

Why should Demosthenes be politically dangerous to Philip" 



102 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

What are evident ideals of tiiis period? What gives material and 
impulse to most of the great men of this time? Illustrate from sculp- 
ture, architecture, literature, politics. What relation do you note 
between training and the "cause of fame "? To what class do these 
men mostly belong ? What do you know of free speech in the Athens 
of this period ? Looking over this list and that on p. 51, what studies 
do you find included under the name of philosophy ? 

4. Stories and Extracts Jllustratlve of Period, 

a. Character of Pericles. (Plutarch.) 

Pericles was of one of the old Eupatrid families, and trained 
like the ordinary free Athenian, in music, literature, oratory, 
and gymnastics. Anaxagoras was then in Athens, and this 
man was " the first who clearly proved that the universe owed 
its formation ... to a pure . . . mind. . . . Charmed with the 
company of this philosopher, and instructed by him in the 
sublimest sciences, Pericles acquired not only an elevation of 
sentiment and a loftiness and purity of style, . . . but likewise 
a gravity of countenance ... a firm and even tone of voice, an 
eas}' deportment, and a decency of dress. . . . We are told, 
there was brought to Pericles from one of his farms a ram's 
head with only one horn ; and Lampo, the soothsayer, observ- 
ing that the horn grew strong and firm out of the middle of the 
forehead, declared that the two parties in the state would unite 
. . . and invest the power " in Pericles ; " but Anaxagoras hav- 
ing dissected the head," discovered the cause of this defect in 
some internal deformity. 

" Such was the solicitude of Pericles, when he had to speak 
in public, that he always first addressed a prayer to the gods, 
' That not a word might unawares escape him unsuitable to the 
occasion.' " 

"As Cimon was his superior in point of fortune, which he 
employed in relieving the poor Athenians, in providing food for 
the needy, and clothing the aged, and, besides this, levelling 
his fences with the ground, that all might be at liberty to gather 
his fruit, Pericles had recourse to . . . dividing the public 
treasure ... by supplying the people with money for theatrical 



STUDY ON THE ATHExNIAN LEADEliSlllP 103 




STATUE OF APHRODITE, 

The so-called Venus of Melos (Milo) ; made in fifth century B.C. ; attributed to 

a puiiil of Phidias. 



104 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 

diversions and for their attendance in the courts. . , . As for 
the mechanics and meaner sort of people, they went not with- 
out their share of the pubUc money, nor yet did they have it to 
support them in idleness. By* the constructing of great edifices, 
they had equal pretensions to be considered out of the treasury 
. . . with the mariners and soldiers. For the different materials, 
such as stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress, furnished 
employment to carpenters, masons, brasiers, goldsmiths, paint- 
ers, turners, and other artificers ; the conveyance of them by 
sea employed merchants and sailors, and by land, wheelwrights,] 
wagoners, carriers, rope-makers, leatlier-cutters, pavers, and* 
iron-founders. Thus, by the exercise of these different trades, 
plenty was spread among persons of every rank and condition." 

"Pericles exerted all his interest to have a decree made, 
appointing a prize for the best performer in music, during th( 
Panathenoea ; ^ and as he was himself appointed judge and' 
distributor of prizes, he gave the contending artists directions 
in, what manner to proceed, whether their performance was 
vocal, or on the lute or lyre." 

"The orators of the opposite party raised a clamour against 
Pericles, asserting that he wasted the public treasure, and 
brought the revenue to nothing. Pericles, in his defence, asked 
the people in full assembly, ' Whether they thought he had 
spent too much?' Upon their answering in the affirmative, 
' Then be it,' said he, ' charged to my account, not yours ; but 
let the new edifices be inscribed with my name, not that of the 
people of Athens.'" Whereupon "they cried out, 'That he 
might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasure, 
without sparing it in the least.' " 

* * * -;;;- * * ■;« 

"Money could not bribe him; he was so much above the 
(fesire of it, that though he added greatly to the opulence of 
the state, which he found not inconsiderable, and though his 
power exceeded that of many kings and tyrants, some of whom 
have bequeathed to their posterity the sovereignty they had 
1 The Athenian festival in honor of Athena. 



J STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 105 

; obtained, yet he added not one drachma ' to his paternal estate." 
iHis family, indeed, "complained of a pittance daily measured 
out with scrupulous economy." 

j In the early part of the Lacedaemonian War, Pericles was 
opposed to the people at Athens, but remained firm " notwith- 
i standing the importunity of his friends and the threats and 
accusations of his enemies, and notwithstanding the many 
I scoffs and songs sung to vilify his character as a general." 

When about to set sail on a naval expedition, " there hap- 
pened an eclipse of the sun. This sudden darkness was looked 
upon as an unfavorable omen, and threw the crews into the 
greatest consternation. Pericles, observing that the pilot was 
I much astonished and perplexed, took his cloak, and having 
covered his eyes with it, asked him, 'If he found anytliing 
terrible in that, or considered it as a bad presage?' Upon his 
answering in the negative, he said, 'Where is the difference 
then between this and the other, except that something bigger 
than my cloak causes the eclipse ?'" When dying, Pericles said 
that the greatest and most honorable part of his character was 
that no Athenian, through his means, ever put on mourning. 

STUDY ON a. 

Make a list of the qualities and characteristics of Pericles How 
many of these helped him attain and keep his power in Athens? 
How did each do this ? Which of these were virtues ? How else did 
he gain and keep power ? Did he use any means of which you dis- 
approve ? Why do you disapprove ? AVhat do we learn of the state 
of religious belief in Athens from these anecdotes ? What was the 
attitude of Pericles toward religion? of Anaj^agoras? What do they 
teach us of the Athenian people ? In \\hat ways did Pericles improve 
the condition of the common people ? Of \^•hat use was this to 
Athens? To the world? 

&. From the Funeral Speech, of PeriGlei^ over the First Dead in 
the Pelopo7inesian War. (Tliuc3'dides, Jowett's translation.) 
" But while the law secures e(iual justice to all alike in their 

private disputes, the claim of excellence is also recognized ; 

i About 18 cents. 



106 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

and when a citizen is in anyway distinguished, he is preferred 
to the public service, not as a matter of privilege, but as a 
reward of merit. . . . And we have not forgotten to provide for 
our weary spirits mau}' relaxations from toil ; we have our reg- 
ular games and sacrifices throughout the year ; at home the 
style of our life is refined ; and the delight which we daily feel 
in all these things helps to banish melancholy. Because of the 
greatness of our city, the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon 
us ; so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as 
of our own. . . . 

" And in the matter of education, whereas our adversaries 
from early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises 
which are to make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are 
equally ready to face the perils which they face. . . . 

"If then we prefer to meet danger with a light heart but 
without laborious training, and Avith a courage which is 
gained by habit and not enforced by law, are we not greatly 
the gainers ? 

" We are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, 
and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth 
we emplo}', not for talk and ostentation, but when there is a 
real use for it. To avow poverty with us is no disgrace ; the 
true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it. An Athenian 
citizen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his 
own household ; and even those of us who are engaged in busi- 
ness have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man 
who takes no interest in public affairs, not as a harmless but as 
a useless character. . . . 

" To sum up : I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, and 
that the individual Athenian in his own person seems to have 
the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of 
action with the utmost A'ersatility and grace. . . . 

" I would have you day l^y day fix your eyes upon the great- 
ness of Athens, until you become filled with the love of her ; 
and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory, 
reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who i^new 



3W ' 

11 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 107 

their dut}' and hud the courage to do it, who in the hour of con- 
flict had the fear of dishonor always present to tliem. . . . 

" For the whole earth is a sepulchre of famous men ; not only 
are they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their 
own country, but in foreign lands there dwells also an un- 
written memorial of them, graven not on stone but in the 
hearts of men. Make them your examples, and, esteeming 
courage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not 
weigh too nicely the perils of war. ..." 

STUDY ON b. 

Describe the Athenian ideal of character as shown in the " Speech 
of Pericles." With whom does he contrast Athens in the matter of 
education ? In what particulars do you think the general American 
ideal of life agrees with the Athenian ? Disagrees ? On the whole, 
which ideal do you think preferable ? What does Pericles mean by 
saying that "the whole earth is a sepulchre of famous men"? How 
is it illustrated by Greek history ? 

c. The Defence and Death of Socrates. 

Xenophon tells us that Socrates, the Athenian philosopher, 
was condemned to death on the following indictment : — 

'' Socrates offends against the laws in not payiug respect to 
those gods whom the city respects, and introducing other new 
deities ; he also offends against the laws in corrupting the 
youth." 

When brought before his accusers he defended himself as 
follows (Plato, Jowett's translation) : — 

" Let the event be as God wills ; in obedience to the law I 
make m}' defense. . . . 

" Some one will say : And are you not ashamed, Socrates, of 
a course of life which is likely to bring you to an untimely end? 
To him I may fairly answer : There you are mistaken : a man 
who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of 
living or d3'ing ; he ought only to consider whether in doing 
anything lie is doing right or wrong, — acting the part of a good 
uuin or a bad. . . . 



108 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

"If you say to me, Socrates, this time we will not mind 
An34us, and will let you off, but upon one condition, that you 
are not to enquire and speculate in this way any more, and 
that if 30U are caught doing this again you shall die, — if this 
were the condition on which you let me go, I should reply : Men 
of Athens, I honor and love yon ; but I shall obey God rather 
than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease 
from the practise and teaching of philosophy, exhorting any 
one whom I meet after my manner, and convincing him, sa3dng : 
O my friend, why do you who are a citizen of the great and 
might}' and wise city of Athens, care so much about laying up 
the greatest amount of money and honor and reputation, and 
so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improvement 
of the soul, which you never regard or heed at all? . . . 

" I tell you that virtue is not given by money, but that from 
virtue come money and every good of man, public as well as 
private. This is my teaching ; and if this is the doctrine which 
corrupts the youth, my influence is ruinous indeed. . . . 

" I do believe that there are gods, and in a far higher sense 
than that in which any of my accusers believe in them. And 
to you and to God I commit my cause, to be determined by 
you as is best for you and me. ..." 

Then followed the voting for and against the condemnation 
of Socrates, and by a very small majority he was condemned 
to death. After this Socrates still continued; "... Now I 
depart hence, condemned by you to suffer the penalty of death, 
and my accusers, too, go their ways condemned b}' truth to 
suffer the penalty of villainy and wrong : and I must abide by 
my reward — let them abide by theirs. . . . 

" We shall see that there is great reason to hope tliat death 
is a good, for one of two things : either death is a state of 
nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or, as men say, there 
is a change and migration of the soul from this world to 
another. . . . 

" Wherefore, O judges, be of good cheer about death, and 
know this of a truth — that no evil can happen to a good man, 



STUDY OF THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 109 

either in life or after death. lie and liis arc not neglected l)y 
the gods ; nor has my own approaching end happened hy mere 
chance. But I see clearly that to die and be released was 
better for me ; and therefore the oracle gave no sign. . . . 

" The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways — I 
to die, you to live. Which is better, God only knows. ..." 

Socrates was then taken to prison, whither his disciples often 
came. On the morning of their last meeting, Socrates is said 
to have spoken thus: '• ' I have good hope that there is 3-et 
something remaining for the dead, and as has been said of old, 
some far better thing for the good than for the evil. . . . 

" ' Then the foolishness of the body will be cleared away, and 
we shall be pure and hold converse with other pure souls, and 
know of ourselves the clear light everywhere ; and this is surely 
the light of truth. For no impure thing is allowed to approach 
the pure. . . . But then, O my friends,' he said, ' if the soul 
is really immortal, what care should be taken of her, not only in 
respect of the portion of time which is called life, but of eter- 
nity ! And the danger of neglecting her from this point of 
view does indeed appear to be awful. If death had only been 
the end of all, the wicked would have had a good bargain in 
dying, for they would have been happily quit, not only of their 
body, but of their own evil together with their souls. But 
now, as the soul plainly appears to be immortal, there is no 
release or salvation from evil except the attainment of the 
highest virtue and wisdom. . . . Wherefore, . . . what ought 
we not to do in order to obtain virtue and wisdom in life ? Fair 
is the prize and the hope great.' . . . Soon the jailer entered 
. . . and handed the cup to Socrates, who in the easiest and 
gentlest manner, without the least fear or change of color or 
feature, looking at the man with all his e3^es, as his manner 
was, took the cup and said : ' What do you say about making 
the libation out of this cup to any god? May I or not?' The 
man answered: 'We onlv prepare, Socrates, just so much as 
we deem enough.' 'I understand,' he said, 'yet I may and 
must pray to the gods to prosper my journey from this to that 



110 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOllY. 

other world. ]\Iay this then, which is iny prayer, be granted 
to me.' 

''Then lioldiog the cup to liis lips, quite readily and cheer- 
fully he drank off the poison." 

STUDY ON c. 

What qualities of character did Socrates show in his defence? 
What were his religious beliefs? How far were they like ours? 
How far different ? Why was the religious belief of a man a matter 
of political importance in a Greek state ? What was Socrates' ideal 
of life? What proof can you give that Socrates had a large Athenian 
following? What qualities of character did Socrates show in his 
death? 

d. Qiiotaiions from the Tragedians. 

" The lips of Zeus know not to speak a lying speech, 
But will perform each single word." — ^Eschylus. 

" Nor did I deem thy edicts strong enough 
That thou, a mortal man, should'st overpass 
The unwritten laws of God that know not change." 

— Sophocles. 

" Let those who live do right ere death descendeth ; 
The dead are dust ; mere nought to nothing tendeth." 

******* 

" For mere high birth I have small meed of praise ; 
The good man in my sight is nobly born." 

******* 

" For men of courage and of virtuous soul, 
Though born of slaves, are far above vain titles." 

******* 

" There are three virtues to observe, my son : 
Honour the gods, the parents that begot you. 
The laws of Hellas. Follow these, 
And you will win the fairest crown of honour." 



STUDY OIT THE ATHENTAK LEADERSHTP. Ill 

•• For AvluMi llie rabble is stronij; and falling' into rage, it is as 
hard to qnell as a Pierce fire. P>iit if one quietly yiold, watch- 
ing well his chance, })erhaps it may spend the fury of its blasts 
and give you your own way as much as you please. For pity 
and passion are alike inherent in the masses, giving excellent 
advantage to one who carefully watches his opportunity." 

"The populace is a terrible thing when it has evil leaders; 
Init when it has good ones, it always deliberates well." 

******* 
" God rules as he wills the events that happen to mortals." 

* * * * * * * 

" I think not that any of the gods is bad." 

" This is more noble, m}' sou, to honour equality, which ever 
links friends with friends and states with states and allies with 
allies ; for equality is sanctioned by law among men." 

******* 

"Why dost thou honor so unboundedly that prosperous 
injustice, royalty, and think so highly of her? " 

******* 

"All the life of man is full of pain, nor is there any respite 
from our toil ; but whatever state there may be better than this 
is hid in shrouding clouds of darkness. Fond, indeed, we seem 
of this glittering earthly life through want of trial of any other 
and through want of proof of what there is beneath the ground." 
******* 

"Confidence is seated in my soul that the man who reveres 
the gods will fare prosperously." 

******* 

"His state is easiest whose wife is settled in his house, a 
cipher. ... A wise woman I detest ; may there not be in my 
house, at least, a woman more highly gifted with mind than 
women ought to be." 



112 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

" Silence iind modesty are best for a woman, remaining 
qnietly within." — Euripides. 

e. From the Comedies of Aristophanes. (Frere's translation.) 

^'- Demus [the personified Athenian people]. Wh}^, sure, you 
don't believe in the gods. 

Nicias. I do. 

Dem. But what's your argument? Where's your proof ? 

Nic. Because I feel they persecute and hate me ; in spite of 
everything I try to please 'em. 

Dem. Well, well. That's true ; you're right enough in that. 

In the following extract Aristophanes personifies the Athenian 
Ecdesia : — 

"•He's a man in years. 
A kind of a bean-fed, husky, testy character, 
Choleric and brutal at times, and partly deaf." 

In this same pla^', the " Knights," the following conversation 
occurs between a sausage-seller and a leading demagogue : — 

" S.S. Are there any means of making a great man 
Of a sausao^e-sellinoj fellow such as I? 

Dem. The very means you have must make you so. 
Low breeding, vulgar birth, and impudence, — 
These, these must make ye what ye're meant to be. 

Tell me truly : "are ye allied 
To the families of the gentry ? 

jS.S. Naugh, not I ; 

I'm come from a common, ordinar}' kindred. 
Of the lower order. 

Dem. What a happiness ! 

What a footing will it give ye ! What a ground-work 
For confidence and favor at your outset ! 

S.S. But bless ye ! Onl}' consider my education ! 
I can but barely read, — in a kind of a way. 

Dem.. That makes against ye ! — The only thing against ye, — 
jrhe being able to read in any way." 



STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. 113 

STUDY ON d AND r. 

What do the extracts from Kuripides and Aristophanes show of the 
political faults of Athens? Illustrate from the Athenian history. 
AVhat political virtues do they refer to ? What three religious tenden- 
cies appear in these extracts and in the account of Socrates? What 
do these extracts tell us of social life ? 

In General, — Why is the Age of Pericles thought so great? Why 
should not such an age have come to Sparta? What reasons can you 
find for its coming to Athens? 



E.F. STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. — Prom Opening of the 
Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Ohaeronea. 

Chief contemporary authorities : Xenophon, Demosthe- 
nes, Isoc rates, Plato. 

Other chief original authorities : Phitarcli, Diodorus. 
Chief modern authorities : Grote and Curtius. 

1. Summary of Principal Political, Military, and Naval 
Events, 431-362. 

Peloponnesian War, carried on with varying 
fortunes and with various combinations of the 
Greek states under the opposing leaderships of 



431 

TO 

404. 



Sparta and Athens. Now a city revolts or changes sides, 
now enters, now withdraws from the conflict. Persian 
money often helps the Spartan allies. 

In 405 occurs the battle of ^gospotami ; the fleet of 
tlie Athenians is completely defeated, and the states 
formerly allied with and subject to her submit to Sparta. 
Athens herself holds out, though without allies and ill- 
provisioned. 

The Athenians, perishing of famine, accede to i — -^^ — j 
the following demands of the Lacedaemonians: | to 
the tearing down of their walls, the surrender of 



399. 



114 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

all their ships but twelve, Jiiid the taking back of theii* 
exiles ; they shall, moreover, have the same friends and 
foes as the Lacedaemonians, and ''follow by land and by 
sea wherever they may lead." The Athenian democracy 
is now overtlirown by the help of Sparta, and an oligarchy 
of thirty, known as the Thirty Tyrants, is established. 
These first expel or execute the democratic leaders, confis- 
cate their property, and finally disarm and exclude from 
Athenian privilege and protection all but 3,000 citizens, 
chosen by themselves. Tliey also forbid any sophist to 
teach in Athens. 

The exiles return and attack Athens; the Spartan king 
interferes, expels the Thirty on account of their atrocities, 
restores the exiles. The Athenians, meeting uow in full 
assembly, vote back a democracy, declare a general am- 
nesty for all save the most conspicuous oligarchs, and 
decree a revision and publication of the Athenian laws. 

The Persians attack the Asiatic Greeks, who 
are under Spartan protection ; war between Per- 
sia and Sparta ; Rhodes revolts from the Spartan 



399 

TO 

394=. 



leadership ; Corinth, Thebes, and Athens refuse her any 
aid, and finally themselves attack her. In 394, at the 
battle of Cnidus, the Persians overthrow the naval power 
of Sparta, and release from her power the cities of the 
jEgsean. War is made on Sparta by Thebes, 
Athens, Argos, and Corinth; it ends by the 
"Peace of Antalcidas," which is composed at 



394 

TO 

387. 



the Persian court by Spartan request, and sent to Greece 
for the cities to sign. This peace reads as follows : — 

"Artaxerxes, the king, thinks it right that the cities in 
Asia . . . should belong to himself, and that he should leave 
the other Greek cities, small and great, free. . . . Whichsoever 
of the two parties does not assent to those terms of peace, I 



STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. 



11; 



mysolf, in coiijiiiu'tion willi tlioso v>lio recoive them, will iniiki; 
war upon that party botli 1)}' hind and ])y soa, both witii shi[)s 
and W'ith moiiev." 



387 

TO 

379. 



378 

TO 

371. 



Growing dissatisfaction of Greeks witli Sparta; 
Spartans expelled from Thebes ; Persians dis- 
tribute money among the Greeks to help them 
against Sparta. 

xVthens and Thebes, in alliance, lead in a war 
against Sparta. At the battle of Leuctra the 
Spartan military power on land is broken by 
Thebes ; Spjarta is compelled to withdraw her officers 
and garrisons from all the Greek cities, and leave them 
independent. 

Many of the Greek cities now ally themselves 
with Thebes, who leads in war against Sparta, 
Epaminondas being the Theban general. 



371 

TO 
363. 



STUDY ON I. 

Why should the Persians help Sparta rather than Athens in the 
Peloponnesian War? AVhy should the battle of ^gospotami decide 
this war for Athens ? Why should " the Thirty " forbid any sophist 
to teach in Athens? Remark upon the proceedings of "the Thirty" 
as compared with those of the restored Athenian democracy. What 
power has Persia to dictate terms of peace ? What is the attitude 
of the various states towards Sparta? Prove it. Towards Persia? 
Prove it. 

2. Sum^nary of Leading Events, 362-338. 

Conquests of Philip of Macedon in Thrace, Illy- 
ria, and along the northern coast of the ^gean ; 
in spite of Athenian opposition, he conquers the 
Greek towns of Chalcidice. He threatens the Hellespont 
and Chersonese. Meanwhile a Sacred War goes on, in 
which various Greek states, led by Thebes, war on Phocis, 
because the Amphictyony has accused her of desecrating, 
by cultivation, a part of the sacred fields of Delphi. Philip 



363 
TO 
346. 



IIG STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

declares himself the champion of Apollo, wins Delphi from 
the Phocians, and in return gains a seat and two votes in 
the Amphictyonic council, in spite of strong objections 
on the part of the Athenians. 

Difficulties and ill-feeling between those Athen- 
ians who favor and those who oppose Philip. 
The latter party is led by the orator Demosthe- 



346 

TO 

340. 



nes. Philip enters Thrace and advances on Chersonese 
the Athenians defend their threatened allies against him, 
roused to activity by the third Philippic of Demosthenes, 
in which he says : — 

" I observe that . . . you have conceded Philip aright, which 
in former times has been the subject of contest in every Grecian 
war. And what is this? The right of doing what he pleases, 
openly fleecing and pillaging the Greeks, one after another, 
attacking and enslaving their cities. You were at the head of 
the Greeks for seventy-three years, the Lacedaemonians for 
twenty-nine ; and the Thebans had some power in these latter i| 
times after the battle of Leuctra. Yet neither of you, m; 
countrymen, nor Thebans, nor Lacedasmonians, were ev 
licensed by the Greeks to act as you please ; far otherwise 
When you, or rather the Athenians of that time, appeared to' 
be dealing harshly with certain people, all the rest, even such 
as had no complaint against Atiiens, thonght proper to side 
with the injured parties in a war against her. . . . Yet all the 
faults committed by the Spartans in those thirty years, and by 
our ancestors in sevent}^, are fewer, men of Athens, than the 
wrongs which, in the less than thirteen years that Philip has 
been uppermost, he has inflicted on the Greeks : . . . What is 
the condition of Thessaly ? Has he not taken away her consti- 
tutions and the governments of her cities? . . . Are not the 
Euboean states governed now by despots, and that in an island 
near to Thebes and Athens ? Does he not expressly write in 
his epistles, ' I am at peace with those who are willing to obey; 
me'? . . . And we, the Greek community, seeing and hearing. 



I 



STUDY OF PERIOD 431-338. 117 

this, instead of sending embassies to one another about it and 
expressing indignation, are in sncli a miserable state, so in- 
trenched in our separate towns, that to this day we can attempt 
nothing that interest or necessity requires ; we cannot combine 
or form any association for succor and alliance ; we look uncon- 
cernedly on the man's growing power, each resolving, methinks, 
to enjoy the interval that another is destroyed in, neither caring 
nor striving for the salvation of Greece. 

^ ^ 7^ '7^ ^ ^ V^ 

" First, let us prepare for our own defense ; provide ourselves, 
I mean, with ships, money, and troops; for surely, though all 
other people consented to be slaves, we at least ought to struggle 
for freedom. When we have completed our own preparations 
and made them apparent to the Greeks, then let us invite the 
rest, and send our embassadors every where . . . to Peloponnesus, 
to Rhodes, to Chios, to the king. . . . This work belongs to you ; 
this privilege your ancestors bequeathed to you, the prize of 
many perilous exertions.'* 



340 

TO 

338. 



The Locrians are accused by the Amphictyoiiy 
of cultivating the sacred plain of Apollo ; war is 
declared against them and Philip elected general. 
Thebans and Athenians decline to join under his lead. 
Philip conquers the Theban and Athenian forces in the 
battle of Chseronea ; he calls a congress of Greeks at 
Corinth to settle their common affairs ; there war is pro- 
posed and declared against Persia, for which each Greek 
state is to furnish men or ships, while Philip is to be their 
captain-general. From this time to 146 B.C., in spite of 
many struggles and much confusion, Greece is under 
Macedonian leadership or supremacy. 

STUDY ON 2. 

Name in order the states which lead the Greeks after the Pelopon- 
iiesiaii War. How in each instance is the leadership obtained? 
What is the general condition of affairs among the Greek states from 



118 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

439 to 338? The battle of Chaeronea is often held to mark the fall of 
Greece. Why? AVhat seem to you to be the causes of that fall? 
Why does Greece fall into the hand of the INIacedonian and not into 
that of the Persian ? How might this fall have been averted ? By 
what cliange in organization ? In spirit ? Illustrate or remark on each 
paragraph taken from Demosthenes. 

STUDY ON GENERAL COURSE OF GREEK HISTORY. 

What characterizes Greek political history? What state appears 
as the champion of Pan-hellenism ? Give instances. What is the 
application of the motto on p. 32 ? How does each Homeric ideal 
develop in later history ? What relation between the Homeric ideals 
and the development of the Greek character ? Why does that char- 
acter develop so differently in different places ? How does it come to 
vary so widely in Athens ? 



STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 119 



THE HELLENISTIC OR ALEXANDRIAN CON- 
QUESTS AND KINGDOMS, 888-146 B.C. 

" Think of the crowds of Dionysiac artists, an 1 ilicir joyous wandering 
life, the festivals and games of old and new Greek cities, even in the 
far East, to which are gathered from afar festive spectators in a common 
worship. As far as the colonies on the Indus and Jaxartes, the Greek has 
kinsmen and finds countrymen. . . . Science orders into system the marvel- 
lous traditions of the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Hindoos, and strives, 
from a comparison of tiiem, to gain new results. All these streams of 
civilization . . . are now united in the cauldron of Hellenistic culture." 

— Droysex 

No conteiDporary authority, aside from existing monu- 
ments, tlie most famous of these being the remains and the 
sculptures found at Pergamos ; chief original authorities : 
Arrian and Plutarch. 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English: Grote, 
Thirlwall, Finlay. 

Chronological Siuntnarij of Imj^ortant E? ents in the 
Hellenistic World, 338 B.C. to Period of Roman 
jyofninion. 

On the death of Philip, Alexander is chosen in — 
a congress of the Greek states at Corinth, as 
general-in-chief of the Greek forces against the 



338 
TO 
334. 



Thebes revolts against him and is subdued. 
Sparta remains independent. He receives the nominal 
;ianction of Delphi for his enterprise. 

Alexander crosses the Hellespont, and follows the route 
indicated in the map (see p. 74) ; at Troy he offers 
sacrifices and honors to the Greek heroes of the Trojan 
War, and raises altars to Zeus, Heracles, and Athena. At 
the Granicus, he wins a victory over the Persians 5 from 



120 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the spoils he sends three hundred suits of armor to be 
dedicated to Atliena, in the Acropolis ; Phrygia and Sardis 
submit. Alexander proclaims liberty to the Lydians, and 
restores the democratic government of Ephesus. Con- 
tinued success along the coast. 

Battle at Issus. ■ — Alexander meets Darius, 
king of Persia, and destroys his army ; Darius, 
escaping to Babylon, raises a second ; Damascus 



334 
TO 
330. 



and Sidon submit to Alexander, who wins Tyre by a diffi- 
cult siege ; he gains the submission of Egypt and founds 
Alexandria. On his return to Phoenicia, he celebrates 
festivals and contests in the Greek style. Thence he 
starts for Babylon, meets Darius at Arbela, thoroughly 
defeats him, and becomes the master of the Persian Em- 
pire; he apportions its satrapies to his followers or friends; 
occupies Susa and Persepolis. 

Alexander marches eastward, receiving the 
submission of the tribes, and founding cities , 
pressing through mountain passes, crossing des- 



r~ 330 

( TO 

I 3g3. 



arts and rivers, he reaches India. The soldiers refuse to 
go further. Alexander offers sacrifice and finds the omens 
unpropitious ; erects altars to the great Greek gods and 
starts homeward. He prepares a fleet, whicli coasts the 
Indian Ocean from the Indus to the Euphrates, through 
waters before unknown to Europeans. On his return to 
Susa he marries the daughter of Darius, and about ten 
thousand Macedonians also take Persian wives. He goes 
to Babylon and prepares to circumnavigate Arabia and 
explore the Euphrates ; but dies from the effect of a 
drunken revel. 

Wars of the generals of Alexander for the 
right of dominion over his empire. In 301 is 
fought the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia, which 



333 

TO 

301. 



finally settles the division of tlie Alexandrian or Hellen- 



STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 121 

Istic knigcloms : the chief of these are Egypt^ which falls 
to the Ptolemies; Syria under the Seleucidce ; Pergamos^ 
ill the north-western part of Asia Minor, ruled by the 
line of Attalids ; Macedon itself, to which Greece remains 
more or less subject. These kingdoms maintain an inde- 
pendent existence under absolute rulers, supported by 
standing armies that are officered by Greeks and Macedo- 
nians, until they become part of the Roman dominion in the 
first and second centuries B.C. The period from 323 to 
146 B.C. is marked in Greece by a series of attempts at 
local independence and social and political reform ; these 
attempts are made, — sometimes by individual cities, no- 
tably, by Athens under Demosthenes, and by Sparta under 
its kings Agis and Cleomenes, — and sometimes by the 
G-reek leagues^ notably, the Achaean and iEtolian. Each 
of the cities in these leagues has its own local govern- 
ment, but their common business is done by an assem- 
bly or council chosen by all, in which each city has one 
vote. 

QUESTIONS ON I. 

In the name of what people are the conquests of Alexander made ? 
N"ame all the proofs of this. How far is he himself Greek? Proofs. 
Why does the conquest of a country mean the conquest of its cities ? 
Of what value are his conquests to commerce? Why should the 
motto on p. 119 be chosen ? 

On the face of it, what fault is there in the Greek attempts at inde- 
pendence? In these leagues what new political form do you note? 
What modern governments do they somewhat resemble? 



See Map facing p, 75, 

Note. — Alexander himself is said to have founded 
more than seventy towns ; in each he left a permanent 
Greek-speaking garrison, ruling the native population 
according to Greek political forms and ideas. 



122 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



QUESTIONS ON MAP AND NOTE. 

How does the size of this empire compare with that of those before 
noticed? What element of unity does it possess? What element does 
it lack ? Why should Alexander turn eastward rather than westward 
for conquest ? What wisdom is displayed in choosing the coast-route 
rather than in striking for the interior ? What is the use of his estab- 
lishing towns along his route ? What great cities of the world are 
due to the foundations of Alexander and his successors? Of what 
value is the position of Alexandria ? AVhat does his march alone 
tell us of the character of Alexander? Of his greatness? What 
civilizations are brought into mutual contact by these conquests? 

2. List of Fainous Names and Works in the Kingdoms 
of the Diadochce (Successors of Alexander). 



Name. 


1^ 
1°" 


BJrth, Circumstance, 
Training. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Apollonius 
of Rhodes, 


3d, 


Greek; studied 
under Callimach- 
us ; taught rhet- 
oric at Rhodes ; 
superintendent of 
Alexandrian 
library. 


Epic poet; took as sub- 
ject the early Greek 
myths of " The Argo- 
nautic Expedition." 


Greek. 


Aratus, 


3d, 


Greek of Asia 
Minor; court 
physician to Ma- 
cedonian king ; 
patronized by 
Ptolemies. 


Poet; giving scientific 
instruction in verse ; 
his poems were popu- 
lar among the Ro- 
mans, and he was 
imitated to some ex- 
tent by Virgil. 


Greek. 


Archimedes, 


3d, 


Greek of Syracuse; 
studied at Alex- 


Invented methods of 
and instruments for 


Greek. 






andria in the 
Royal School of 
the Ptolemies; 


investigating natural 
forces ; greatest math- 
ematical and mechani- 


1 






personal friend 
of Hiero, his 


cal genius of antiquity. 








patron, and king 
of Syracuse. 







STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 



123 



Name. 




Birth, Circumstance, 
Training. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Aristophanes 


3(1, 


Greek of Byzan- 


Founded a school for 


Greek. 


of Byzan- 




tium; studied 


grammar and criti- 




tium, 




under Eratosthen- 
es of Alexandria. 


cism ; superintendent 
of Alexandrian libra- 
ry ; Homeric critic ; 
commented on works 
of Hesiod, Alcaeus, 
Pindar, Plato, and 
Aristotle; invented 
Greek system of 
punctuation and 
accent. 




Aristarchus, 


3d, 


Greek of Samos. 


Astronomer; the first 
to maintain that the 
earth moves around 
the sun, thus antici- 
pating the discovery 
of Copernicus. 


Greek. 


Berosus, 


3d, 


Babylonian priest ; 
was patronized 
by the Greek 
Antiochus. 


Translated Babylonian 
history into Greek, 
from original records. 


Greek. 


Bion, 


3d, 


Greek of Asia 
Minor ; spent the 
latter part of his 
life in Sicily. 


Poet ; wrote on the 
beauties of nature 
and the pleasures of 
life in the country. 


Greek. 


Diogenes, 


4th, 


Greek of Sinope ; 
banished; lived 
in Athens and 
Corinth. 


Cynic philosopher; 
teaching the vanity 
of human desires, oc- 
cupations, and achieve- 
ments. 


Greek. 



124 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 



Epicurus, 



Eratosthenes 



Euemeros, 



Euclid, 



Eunienes II. 



4th, 



8(1 



4th 
and 
3d, 



3d, 



2d, 



Bifth, Circumstance, 
Training. 



Samian Greek ; 
son of a common 
school-master ; 
teacher of phil- 
osophy in Athens 

Alexandrian Greek, 
horn at Gyrene ; 
superintendent of 
Alexandrian 
library. 



Sicilian Greek; in 
service of Mace- 
donian king. 



Greek; patronized 
by Ptolemies. 



Cause of Fame. 



King of Pergamos. 



Founder of Epicurean 
school of i:)hilosophy, 
which teaches that 
happiness should be 
the aim of human 
conduct. 

Astronomer, geogra- 
pher, and geometri- 
cian ; invented present 
method of measuring 
the size of the earth, 
which he taught was 
round. 

Author of a work to 
show that the gods 
were but heroes dei- 
fied by men on ac- 
count of their great 
deeds. 

Founded a mathemati- 
cal school at Alexan- 
dria; author of 
" Elements of Geome- 
try," which for twenty 
centuries has held its 
ground as an intro- 
duction to geometry. 

Founded the famous 
library i at Pergamos ; 
built the great Perga- 
mon altar to Athena, 
and had Pergamos 
adorned with beauti- 
ful sculptures. 



Language. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



A 



1 The library contained 200,000 volumes when Antony presented it to 
Qieopatr^. 



STUDY ON THE HP:LLENLSTIC KINGDOMS. 



125 



Ilipparchus 



Manetlio, 



Menander, 



Ptolemy 
Soter, 



2il, 



kl, 



PtolemyPhil- 
adelplius, 



4th 
and 

3d, 



3d, 



Birth, Circumstance, 
Training. 



Grook of Nica^a in 
Bithynia. 



Egyptian priest 
and annalist ; 
patronized by 
Ptolemies. 



4th, Athenian Greek ; 
associate of phil- 
osophers and a 
man of society. 



General of Alex- 
ander the Great 
in the Asiatic 
campaign ; king 
of Egypt and 
founder of the 
Grffico-Egyptian 
dynasty. 

Hereditary king of 
Egypt. 



Cause of Fame. 



Founder of mathemati- 
cal astronomy and of 
plane and siilierical 
trigonometry ; 
greatest astronomer 
of antiquity. 

Translated original 
historical records of 
Egypt into Greek. 



Author of comedies 
whose material was 
taken from domestic 
and common life. 
{New Comedy). 

Rebuilt and ornament- 
ed the temples of the 
Egyptian gods ; col- 
lected a library and 
founded the Museum, 
or college of profes- 
sors, thus forming a 
true university .1 

Reopened the canal of 
Rameses II. ; built 
Arsinoe on tlie site of 
modern Suez, also 
built cities on the 



Language. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



^ " The Museum, or university building, comprised chambers for the 
professors ; a common hall where they took their meals together ; a long 
corridor for exercise and ambulatory lectures ; a theatre for scholastic 
festivals and public disputations ; a botanical garden and a menagerie." 



126 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 




Birth, Circumstance, 
Training. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 








Red Sea coast, through 










which the merchan- 










dise of India, Arabia, 










and Ethiopia reached 










Europe for several 










centuries ; had the 










Arabian coast ex- 










plored ; the Hebrew 










Scriptures translated 










into Greek {Sepfua- 










gint), about his time. 




Pyrrlio, 


4th 


Greek of Elis ; 


Taught that truth from 


Greek. 




and 


high priest ; poet. 


a scientific point of 






3d, 


painter, philoso- 
pher; joined the 
expedition of 
Alexander the 
Great. 


view was unattaina- 
ble ; founder of a 
school of skeptics. 




Seleucus 


4th, 


Son of Antiochus, 


Founded Syrian mon- 


Greek. 


Nikator, 




a general of 
Philip of Mace- 
don, who accom- 
panied Alexander 
the Great in his 
Asiatic expedi- 
tion. 


archy ; founded tlie 
city of Seleucia ; 
built Antioch. 




Theocritus, 


3d, 


Greek of Syracuse ; 
went to Alexan- 
dria and secured 
the patronage of 
Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus. 


Poet ; using same ma- 
terial as Bion. 


Greek. 



STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 127 

QUESTIONS ON 2. 

Tt is said that the conquests of Alexander were the conquests of 
Hellenism: how far is this true? Proofs. Tn what directions was 
Hellenism developed under the DiadochreV What effect had the 
Alexandrian conquest on language? What historic reason for the 
rapid development of the Greek civilization in Egypt and in Asia ? 
What were the centres of this development? On what did this 
development depend for support? Illustrate from commerce, liter- 
ature, art. What new forms of literature arose during this period? 
Compare Theocritus and iEschylus; Menander and Aristophanes; 
comparing material alone, which poets rank higher? What studies 
were further developed? What historic reason for this ? What did 
men think about in philosophy ? Compare with Socrates and the 
earlier philosophers. 



128 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 









] = Italians. 

:= Lafir> Colonies. 



= Greeks. 
= Kelts (Gauls) 
rvvvl = Phoenicians. 



r= Roman Roads. 
Etruscans 




III. Sabine Laud. 

IV. Cisalpine Gaul 



V. Samnium. 
VI. Campania. 



VII. Apulia. 
VIII. Umbiia. 



STUDY OK EEGAL AND PKyE-PUNlC ROME. 129 



ROME, 753(?) B.C.- 800 A.D. 

S.P.Q.R. {" Se7iatus Populasqne llomanus," — Tlie Senate and the Peo]>/e 

of Rome). 

"... Others, I grant indeed, shall with more delicacy mold the breathing 
brass ; from marble draw the features to the life ; plead causes better ; 
describe with the rod the courses of the heavens, and explain the rising- 
stars : to rule the nations with imperial sway be thy care, O Roman ; 
these shall be thy arts ; to impose terms of peace, to spare the humbled 
and crush the proud." — Vikgil. 

Periods of Roman History. 

A. Regal, 753(?)-510 (?) B.C. 

B. Republican, 510(?)-27. 

I. Prce-Punic Period, 510 (?) - 264. 
11. Punic '^Period, 264-146. 
III. Post-Punic, 146-27. 

C. Imperial, 27 B.C. - 1806 A.D. 

I. Pagan Empire, 27 B.C. -322 A.D. 
II. Christian Empire, 323-800, dividing into 
Holy Roman Empire (Western J, 800-1806, 
Byzantine or Greek Empire (Eastern), 800-1453. 



Note on Map of Italy. — The valleys and table-lands of the 
Apennines are connected by easy passes, and their slopes are grassy 
and fertile, — scarcely reaching the snow-line. The products of the 
land, and the dress and food of the people were similar to those 
of Greece. Latium on the north " imperceptibly merged into the 
broad highlands of Etruria " ; its plain was easily worked and 
richly productive ; Rome itself was placed on seven hills, where 
three allied Italian tribes had their strongholds, and controlled either 
shore of Tiber to the sea. 

^ So-called because it is marked by the great wars of Rome and Car- 
thage; Pra3-Punic means the time before these wars, Post-Punic the period 
after. 



130 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

QUESTIONS ON MAP AND NOTE. 

What are the natural boundaries of Italy? How, and from what 
do they protect her ? What geographical reasons can you give for 
the race-division of Italy? What geographic contrasts do you see 
between Greece and Italy? What difference will these contrasts 
cause, (a) in relative dates of the beginnings of Greek and Italian 
civilization ? (b) in the size of Greek and Italian states ? (c) in the 
natural occupations of the inhabitants? Keason for each answer. 
What advantages of position has Rome? What advantages of posi- 
tion have the people of Latium as compared with those of Samnium ? 
The commerce of what countries can the masters of Italy and Sicily 
control ? How ? (See map of Roman Empire under Ti-ajan, pp. 
190, 191.) 



A. B. I. STUDY ON REGAL EOME AND PEZl-PUNIO 
EEPUBLIO, 753(?)-510(?)-264 B.C. 

Chief contemporary authorities: remains of hiws and 
inscriptions ; the walls and other monuments of the kings 
and the early republic. 

Other chief original authorities: Livy, Plutarch, 
Dionysius. 

Chief modern authorities: Mommsen, Ihne, Diiruy. 

1. Classes of People in Early Rome, 

Patricians, who claim descent from the founders and 
settlers of Rome ; they belong to three different Italian 
tribes, each tribe being subdivided into clans, and these 
again into families. 

PleheAans, who seem to be the descendants of strangers 
and unrelated settlers on the Roman hills ; they are not 
allowed to marry into patrician families, nor to share their 
religious rites. 

Slaves^ who largely consist of those sold for debt or 
taken captive in war. 



STUDY OK REGAL AND PU.7<>PUNIC ROME. 131 

The Political Ovfjanizafionr, ({'oasfififfioiis) of the. 
Period. 



a. Duties and Powers of Various Parts (f Retjal Rome, 
7r):3(?) -51()(?) li.c. 



Parts of the State 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Religion. 


King, patrician 


Commands 


Proposes ; 


Chooses and 


Nominates 


from any 


the army ; 


judges. 


sunnnons sen- 


priests and 


tribe. 


decides war 


with power 


ate and magis- 


priestesses ; 




(except ag- 


of life and 


trates ; is state 


offers sacri- 




gressive) 


death. 


treasurer; de- 


fices, and 




and peace. 




crees and car- 
ries through 
public works ; ^ 
nominates 
successor. 


consults 
the gods in 
behalf of 
the state. 


Senate of 300 


Approves 


Consulted 


Senators rule 




patricians ; 


the motion 


by king ; 


by turns in 




100 clan- 


for aggres- 


approves 


case of an 




elders from 


sive war. 


or disap- 


interregnum .2 




each tribe. 




proves his 
measures. 






Curiate Assem- 


Composes 


Confirms or 


Constructs pub- 




bly, com- 


army ; 


rejects 


lic works ; ac- 


Worships 


posed of the 


votes upon 


laws ; has 


cepts nomina- 


together, 


men of the 


aggressive 


right of 


tion of king ; 


grouped in 


patrician 


war. 


pardon if 


meets to hear 


curies, each 


tribes divided 




king per- 


commands, 


cury with 


into curies. 3 




mits an ap- 
peal; no 
discussion 
allowed. 


news, etc. 


its own 
priest. 





^ For public works of Regal Rome, see p. 140. 
2 Space of time between the rules of two successive kings. 
^A " Cury" was a group of clans distinguished from the others by a 
closer blood-relationship among themselves. 



132 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Note. — Servius Tullius, the contemporary of Solon, adds to this 
organization tlie Centuriate Assembly, composed of all land-holding 
patricians and plebeians, divided into centuries or hundreds ; those 
j)ossessing property within certain fixed amounts are placed in the 
same century. This new assembly composes the lloman army, builds 
public works, and has the right to accept or reject by its vote aggres- 
sive warfare. 

STUDY ON a. 

Of whom is this state practically composed? AVherc is its power 
centred? Who feels this power? How ? If a revolution occur, what 
will you expect to find changed ? What are the bonds of union in this 
state? AVhy should the plebeians be admitted to the army? What 
does this change show in regard to their number in Home ? What 
power does it give them in case they are wronged ? At what may 
the plebeians be dissatisfied?- What name will you give this form 
of government? 

h. Constitution of Rome as cJianged at 510 B.C. 



Parts of the State 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Religion. 


Two annual 


Conmiand 


Propose 


Appoint dicta- 


Offer sacri- 


consuls; pa- 


the army. 


measures to 


tor, quasstors, 


fices and 


tricians. 




centuries 


and senators ; 


consult 






and senate ; 


accept or re- 


gods for 






judge, hut 


ject consular 


the com- 






must allow 


nominations of 


munity, I y 






an appeal 


centuries. 


means of 






to the 




priests and 






centuries. 




augurs,! 
who are 
patricians. 



1 The auspices and auguries played the part in Rome which tlie oracles 
did in Greece. The flight of birds, the quivering entrails of freshly 
slaughtered victims, tlie thunder, lightning, and earthquake revealed to 
the Romans the will of their deities. This will was interpreted to them ( 
by the augurs, who formed a regular college supported by the state. The 



STUDY ON REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC ROME. 



133 



Parts of the State 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Religion. 


One dictator 


1 
Same powers as those 


i 
of king in Regal Period. 


on occasion ; 










patrician. 










Senate, essen- 


Declares 


Confirms or 


Confirms or re- 


Appoints 


tially patri- 


war and 


rejects de- 


jects elected 


days of spe- 


cian. 


peace. 


cisions of 


officers ; con- 


cial suppli- 






centuries ; 


trols expendi- 


cation, 






debates 


ture; makes 


sacrifice, 






measures to 


and breaks 


or thanks- 






be proposed 


alliances. 


giving. 






by consuls. 






Curiate 






Takes oath of 


Decides on 


Assembly ; 






allegiance to 


some 


patrician. 






the consul or 
dictator. 


religious 
matters. 


Centuriate 


Composes 


Confirms or 


Elects consuls. 


Is present 


Assembly, as 


the army ; 


rejects pro- 




at acts of 


before. 


consents to 


posals of 




public 




aggressive 


consuls ; 




worship. 




Avar. 


has right of 
pardon on 
an appeal ; 
meets to 
hear com- 
mands, 
news, etc. ; 
no debate. 







Romans did not feel justified in entering on any public action, unsanctioned 
by the gods ; thus their laws, their treaties, their records, their standards 
of weight and measure, were protected by the temples and the priests. 
The former were built, the latter were supported, by the public treasury ; 
the senate-house was a temple ; every public assembly, every expedition, 
began Avith prayers to the gods. 



134 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



STUDY ON I AND 2, a, b. 

What are the two greatest differences between this and the formei 
constitution ? What is now the strongest part of the state ? In 
whose hands is the power ? What class has probably made this 
change, and why ? What name will you give to this sort of govern- 
ment ? What part of the state is now oppressed, and in what does 
that oppression consist ? What power has this part to overcome this 
oppression ? What bonds of union are there in this state ? Where 
does each bond appear ? Which bond is most prominent ? What 
part of the state is increasing in power ? 

c. The Roman Constitution at 264 b.c. 



Parts of the State 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration, 


Religion. 


Two annual 


As before. 


Propose 


Convene senate, 


As before ; 


Consuls, pa- 




measures 


centuries, and 


but the 


trician and 




to centuries 


tribes. 


priests and 


plebeian. 




and senate. 




augurs are 
patrician 
and 
plebeian. 


One annual 




Judges. 


Convenes and 




Praetor, patri- 






gets decrees 




cian or 






from senate. 




plebeian. 










Two Censors, 






Declare who has 


Perform 


patrician and 






the right to sit 


lustrations.' 


plebeian. 






in the senate, 
vote in this or 
that assembly, 
hold this or 
that office ; 
look after pre- 
servation of 
manners and 
morals. 





Sacrifices for purification from some public crime. 



STUDY ON KEGAL AND PR^-PUNIC HOME. 



135 



Parts of the State 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


Religion. 


Ten annual 




Propose 


Convono, con- 




Tribunes, 




measures 


sult, obtain, 




plebeians. 




to Tribal 
assembly ; 
veto ; 
judge. 


and veto de- 
crees from the 
senate ; convene 
tribal assembly. 




One Dictator 


As befor 


e, lie has absolute jmwer during 


office. 


on occasion, 










patrician or 










plebeian. 










Senate, patri- 


As before. 


Deliberates 


As before. 


As before. 


cian and 




on meas- 






plebeian. 




ures to be 
proposed 
to the 
assemblies. 






Curiate 


As before. 


As before. 


As before. 


As before. 


Assembly. 










Centuriate 


As before. 


As before. 


Elect censors 


As before. 


assembly, 






and praetors ; 




as before. 






otherwise as 




adding free- 






before. 




born landless 










citizens and 










freedmen. 










Tribal or 




Confirm or 


Elect tribunes. 




District 




reject the 






assembly ^ 




measures 






of citizens. 




proposed by 
the tribunes; 
court of 
justice. 







^ A District Assembly was composed of Koman citizens, divided into 
tribes according to residence, those living in the same district or ward 
being placed in the same tribe ; in such an assembly one vote was as good 
as another, whereas, in the Centuries, the votes of the richest counted for 
most. 



136 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

STUDY ON 2, a, b, c. 

What great changes have occurred in the Roman constitution since 
510 B.C.? Compare this constitution with the Athenian in regard to, 
(a) the curies, (b) the centuries, (c) the tribes. How do the classes 
compare now? What name will you give to this government? What 
bonds of union are found in it? Which of these is the newest? 
What part of the state is increasing in power? Prove it. Comparing 
the three constitutions, — of regal Rome, of 510, of 264; what pro- 
gressive changes do you notice, (a) in regard to the division of: 
power? (&) in regard to the classes holding power? (c) in regard 
to justice and liberty ? What permanent relation between the political 
and military organization? 



d. Story from Livy to illustrate Change from b to c- — How 
the Tribunes aldose (about 494 B.C.). 

One day an old man, ragged, pale, emaciated, " threw him- 
self into the forum ^ . . . and . . . exhibited scars on his breast, 
witnesses of honorable battles." To those enquiring, he said 
" that while serving in the Sabine war, because he had not only 
been deprived of the produce of his land in consequence of the 
. . . enemy, but also his residence had been burned down, all 
his effects pillaged, his cattle driven off, a tax imposed on him, 
... he had incurred debt ; . . . that he was taken by his creditor 
. . . into ... a place of execution " : - he then showed his back, 
disfigured with the marks of recent stripes. "At the hearing and 
seeing of this . . . sedition came to such a height that the maj- 
esty of the consuls could hardly restrain the violence of the 
people. . . ." Amidst those debates "the news came that a 
hostile army was marching on Rome. The people exulted with 
joy, and said . . . that the patricians should serve ns soldiers . . . 
so that the perils of war should remain with whom the advan- 
tages were. But the senate . . . entreated the consul ... to 
extricate the commonwealth." The consul then proceeding to 

1 The pubhc square of Home, used for a market and meeting-place. 

2 See laws of debt, p. 145. 



STUDY OX REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC HOME. 137 

the assembly declared tliat nothing could take precedence of 
defensive warfare ; that the enemy was almost at the gates ; 
and then and there ordained that no Roman citizen should be 
detained " in chains or in prison," that no one should " seize or 
sell his goods," "arrest his children or grandchildren" while 
he himself was enrolled for war. Thus alla3ing the present 
difficulty, the consul led forth the citizens and defeated the 
enemy. But on their return to Rome, new and severer laws 
regarding debt were decreed ; at the same time, the Sabines 
threatened the city with war; but " when a levy was decreed, 
nobody gave in his name . . . and the people crowding around 
the consuls . . . said ' They should never enlist one soldier till 
the public faith was made good ; tliat liberty should be restored 
to each before arms were given.' " The senate, however, ap- 
pointed as dictator a man favored by the plebeians, and him they 
followed against the Sabines ; the more so, as he promised to 
gain them favorable laws. On his return, accordingly, he 
renewed "the question relative to debt, . . . but the senate 
refused to consider it " ; whereupon the plebeians, still under 
arms, marched out of Rome to the Sacred Mount, and quietly 
encamped ; nor were they induced to return till the senate 
promised "that the plebeians should have their own magis- 
trates." Thus arose the tribunes of the plebs. 

STUDY ON (I, 

What parties existed in Rome ? Corresponding to what in Greek 
history ? What seems to have been the trouble between them ? What 
parallel in Greek history ? What spirit was shown by each party in 
this story ? What united these parties ? What power had either to 
compel the other to do as it wished ? What two things did the ple- 
beians gain by means of their power ? 

3. Summary of Chief External Events and Relations 
of the Period. 

From very early times the towns of Latium seem to 
have formed a league with Rome ; the earliest form of 
this league accepted as reliable dates from the first cen- 



138 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

tuiy uf the Republic (about 493 B.C.), and provides that 
there shall be everlasting peace between Rome and Latium, 
and that tliey shall help one another in war. Tliis league 
is confirmed and maintained by the common worship of 
Jupiter^ on the Alban mount. 

From 753 to about 400 B.C. a constant petty warfare 
goes on all about the Latin frontier, with varying success, 
but gradually strengthening the power of the Latin 
League. The most memorable victory of this series of 
wars seems to have been the siege and destruction of the 
Etruscan town of Veii, apparently Rome's most formi- 
dable neighbor. 

The Gauls invade Latium from the north, 
defeat the Roman army, capture Rome, plunder 



390. 



363 

TO 

340. 



and burn it, but are at last persuaded, by a large pay- 
ment of gold, to withdraw. Rome is hastily and irregu- 
larly rebuilt. 

Continued war of Latium against her neigh- 
bors ; the whole of southern Etruria is subjected 
to Roman dominion. — Rome and Carthage make 
a treaty of commerce. — Rome puslies her dominion south- 
ward to the Samnite border. —Samnite emigrants in 
Campania ask Roman aid against the Samnites of the 
mountains ; the result of the war is that Rome gains 
Capua. 

The Latins demand equal rights with the 
Romans in the government of Rome and Rome's 
dominion ; denied, they wage war on Rome, the 



340 

TO 

338. 



end of whicli is that the Latin League is dissolved and 
the superior power of Rome firndy fixed in Latium. 

New war with the Samnites, caused by Roman 

aggression; Campania is thoroughly conquered ; 

the whole of Etruria comes under the Roman 



338 

TO 

264. 



* Tlie chief Latin deity, corresponding to the Greek Zeus. 

.11 



STUDY ON KEGAL AND Pll^-PUNIC KOME. 129 

power. Two fine military roads are built, the Flaniiniaii 
Way iiortliwarcl, the Appian Way southward to Capua, 
and colonies of Roman soldiers are settled through the 
conquered lands. 

The Samnites lead in a third war against Rome, and 
are joined by Etruscans, South Italians, and mountain 
tribes ; at its close the Romans gain donunion through 
the lands of the Sabines and the Umbrians, and a name 
which is feared throughout the yet unconquered j^arts of 
Italy. 

Roman ships of war, contrary to treaty, anchor in the 
harbor of Tarentum; the people attack them, capture five 
and kill or sell their crews. A Roman embassy sent to 
arrange matters is insulted, and war breaks out between 
Rome and Tarentum. The Tarentines call Pyrrhus, king 
of Epii us, to their aid, and are joined by the Samnites 
and South Italians. 

After nearly ten years of war Tarentum is subdued, 
the lands of the Samnites, Apulians, Campanians, and all 
other South Italian peoples come under the dominion of 
Rome. The north is now thoroughly subjugated up to 
the Rubicon and the Apennines. 

In the earliest conquests the defeated peoples, together 
with their gods, become a part of the Roman community 
and share in the Roman worship. As soon as Rome 
begins to conquer beyond the borders of Latium, however, 
she sends forth bands of her own citizens to possess and 
cultivate a part, and defend the whole, of her newly 
acquired territories. These settled bands are the so-called 
Roman colonies. 

The only claims wliich Rome makes throughout her 
Italian dominion are, — a tribute of armed men or ships, 
the sole right of making war and peace, and the sole 
power of coining money. She gives the inhabitants of 



140 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

some cities and towns the name, with the duties and 
privileges, of full Roman citizens ; others have the " Latin 
right," that is, the right of free trade with Rome, and the 
power, under conditions, of becoming Roman citizens; 
still others are subject directly to Roman officers and 
Roman law; others, again, are under their own local 
laws and government, bound to Rome by a simple treaty 
of equal alliance. 

Wherever Rome conquers, she claims at least a third of 
the land ; this is divided among the citizens of Rome, and 
its distribution causes great strife between the various 
classes of her people. This struggle gives rise to a long 
series of " Agrarian Laws,^^ intended to prevent aiiy 
monopoly or great inequality in the possession of subject 
land. 

STUDY ON 3. 

In what order does Rome conquer Italy? What advantage for 
conquest has Rome ? (See map, and pictures, pp. 141, 142.) Name all 
the measures by which her conquests are secured. Name two or three 
things which must become alike throughout Italy by these means. 
Of what value is this to Rome ? Contrast the Roman and Greek 
colonies in regard to the purposes and occupations of their founders. 
Contrast Roman dominion in Italy with the Athenian empire. Which 
was the stronger, and why? Can you tell in one word in what the 
strength of Rome consists ? What is the difference between the words 
" growth " and " development " as used in the phrases, " the develop- 
ment of the Roman constitution," *' the growth of Rome's dominion"? 

4. Notable Works and InnovatioHs of Period, 

a. Under the Kings, 753(?)-510( ?) b.c. 

Walls of Rome ; defences of the Capitol ; prison and 
treasury ; temple of Jupiter on the Capitol ; forum or 
public square for markets and for great meetings of the 
people, such as the Assemblies; bridges over the Tiber; 



STUDY ON KEGAL AND PK^E-PUNIC KOME. 



141 



the Great Circus, a mcasuved level space for games and 
spectacles; the Great Drain (^Cloaca Maxima)^ for carrying 
the sewerage of Rome into the Tiber. 




PART OP THE ETRUSCAN (BTRURIAN) WALL, 
at Volterra, near Rome, built about 700 B.C. 

b. Under Republic, 510(?)-264 b.c. 

Great military roads, hard, firm, and smooth, going out 
from Rome in various directions (see map, p. 128); the 
most famous is the Appian Waif, goii^g south to Capua ; 



142 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



the Appian aqueduct; ships of war; bronze image of the 
slie-wolf and the twins, made and dedicated in honor of 




PART OP THE WALL OF THE KINGS (SERVIUS?), 
on the Aventine Hill in Rome. The arch is believed to be the second oldest in Europe. 

the wolf who was said to have nursed the deserted twins, 
Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome ; 



STUDY ON REGAL AND PUiE-PUNIC ROME. 143 

temj^tle of Ceres, built and adorned with paintings by 
Greeks ; temple of Apollo ; twelve tables of Roman law, 
said to have been drawn up by Roman law-givers after a 
journey to Greece for the purpose of studying the laws of 
Solon ; beginning of historical annals of Rome, written 
by priests and laid up in the temples (destroyed at the 
burning of Rome by the Gauls) ; statues erected in the 
Forum in honor of generals, law-givers, famous citizens, 
or public benefactors. Introduction of Greek military 
tactics, much improved by Roman experience, and the 
addition of Italian weapons ; military pay introduced ; the 
draining of Lake Velinus, by wliich a large portion of 
fertile land is gained for agriculture. 

5. List of Religious Feasts of Early Home (Mommsen). 

The first month of the Roman year was March. Then 
came the great three-days' festival of Mars, the god of war, 
and a feast for the deities who presided at the birth of 
chijdren. In April, sacrifices were offered to the nourish- 
ing earth, to the goddesses who favored the germination 
and growth of the crops, and the increase of herds; to 
Jupiter, as protector of vines and vats ; and to Rust, 
the enemy of grain. In May, came another day 
for Mars, a day to propitiate the god hostile to the 
vines, and three days sacred to the spirits of the dead. 
Vesta, goddess of the hearth, the goddess of birth, and 
the Penates, guardians of the store-chamber, were honored 
in June. The summer-grove festival came in July, to- 
gether with a day sacred to the gods of the sea. In 
August, came a wine^east, sacrifices to the gods of the 
harbor and river, twin festivals to the god and goddess 
of harvest, and a day for Vulcan, god of fire and smith- 
work. October saw the consecration of arms to Mars, a 
thanksgiving to Jupiter, as the wine-god, and a festival for 



144 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the fountain-deities. In December occurred thanksgivings 
for the blessings of the granarj' , the festivals of seed-sowing 
and of the shortest day. In January, feasts for the god- 
dess of magic spells ; February closed the list with tlie 
feast of Lupercalia, sacred to the wolf of Mars; days for 
Faunus, the shepherd-god; for departed spirits ; and for the 
consecrated boundary-stones of the fields. All the days 
of the full moon were dedicated to Jupiter, as god of the 
sky. Meanwhile, in every house were household gods, 
especially the Lares or the spirits of dead ancestors, to 
whom it was always the first duty of the house-father, on 
returning home, to pay his devotions, and to whom was 
assigned some share of every meal. 

STUDY ON 4, 5, AND THE PICTURES. 

What sort of works are iiotahly absent from this list ? [Compare with 
Greek lists.] With what sorts of life are all these works connected ? 
What evident relation between Greece and Rome ? What new mode 
of construction do you find in the Roman work ? What do you find 
to admire in the specimen of Roman work given ? With what is art 
connected, so far as there is any ? What do we know of the number 
of the Roman gods from this list ? Of their rank? Their relation to 
human affairs? The way to gain their favor? AVith what sort of 
affairs are they connected? Why did the Romans worship them? 
Make a list of Roman occupations. Which lead in importance? 

6. Note on Vocabulary, 

In the earliest Latin the names of the following objects 
are derived from the Greek, or from the East through 
the Greek : linen, purple, ivory, the wine-jug and wine- 
bowl, mortar, the measuring-rod, a balance, a lyre, a 
stage. From the Greeks came many nautical terms, 
names of coins and measures, and even the Latin alpha- 
bet itself. 



STUDY ON REGAL AND ]*RyE-rUNIC HOME. 145 

7. Rem a his of the Tf reive Tables, or the Earliest Written 
Latr of Koine, dating from about 451 B.C. 

"A foreigner can gain nu property in a thing by long 
possession. If a citizen confess a debt, or be adjudged to 
pay it, he shall be allowed thirty lawful days to make l)ay- 
ment ; after that time lie may be arrested. ... If he then 
do not pay or find somebody to pay for him, the creditor 
may take him away and bind him with cords or with 
fetters, which must not be more than fifteen pounds weight, 
. . . the creditor may keep the debtor sixty days in chains, 
and in the course of that time shall present him for three 
successive fair days, . . . and publicly notify the debt. If 
there be more creditors than one, after the three fair 
days they may cut up the debtor or sell him beyond 
the Tiber." 

"A father may kill at its birth a child monstrously 
deformed. He shall have a right of life and death over 
all his lawful children, and also of selling them. If a 
father sell his child thrice, the child shall afterwards be 
free from him. . . . Howsoever a father of a family 
directs by will, as to his property, or the guardianship of 
his children, such shall be the law." 

******* 

"He who has by incantation blasted another's corn, or 
who has privily by night fed down or cut up arable 
produce, shall be put to death by hanging him as a victim 
to Ceres. ^ . . . He who has wilfully and maliciously set 
fire to a house, or to a stack of corn piled up against a 
house, shall be bound, beaten with rods, and burnt alive ; 
but if he has done so accidentally, he shall compensate 
the loss; if unable to make compensation, let him be 
slightly chastised. He who slightly insults another shall 
be fined twenty-five pounds of copper. If any one publicly 

1 The goddess of the harvest. 



146 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

defame another, or make verses^ to his disgrace or injury, 
let him be beaten with a stick. If he break another's limb, 
unless he can settle with him, he shall undergo retaliation. 
If he break the jaw-bone of a free man, he shall pay three 
hundred pounds of copper; if of a slave, one hundred and 
fifty 

"Let there be no exceptional laws in favor of individuals. 
. . . Let no capital punishment be pronounced against a 
Roman citizen, except in the Great Assembly of the peo- 
ple. ... If any one incite an enemy (against Rome), or 
betray, or deliver up to the enemy, a citizen, let it be a 
capital offense. 

"Let not a dead man be buried or burnt within the city. 
. . . Let not the funeral-pile be made of carved wood. 
Let there be no more than three mourning-women and 
ten flute-players. . . . Let the anointing of slaves and 
the handing round of liquors be abolished. Let no per- 
fumed liquids be sprinkled upon the deceased. Let no 
long garlands nor altars covered with perfumes be carried 
before the corpse. But, if the deceased has gained a 
crown of honor by his bravery, let the praise of himself 
and his ancestors be celebrated, and let it be lawful that 
the crown be placed before the corpse, both within doors 
and when it is carried forth. . . . 

" Let that which tlie peo^^le has last ordained be settled 
law. Let there be no right of marriage between the 
patricians and the plebeians." 

STUDY ON 6 AND 7. 
What does the vocabulary tell us of the early relations of Phoe- 
nicia, Greece, and Latium? Make a list of the arts and sciences 
brought from outside into Italy. Which of these came from Phce- 
nicia ? Which from Greece ? Reasons. 

1 "The trade of a poet," says Cato, "in former times was not respected ; 
if any one occupied himself with it, he was called an idler." 



STUDY ON REGAL AND PRyK-PUNlC ROME. 147 

What is tlie spirit of the Roman laws in regard to the foreigner? 
Tlie debtor? What form of family existed in early Rome? What 
classes of people, and how was each regarded? From what did these 
laws protect people? What classes? Select those which you would 
describe as "sumptuary." Where have you found such laws before? 

In General. — What is the ideal of the early Romans? What is 
their attitude to the fine arts ? IIow does their political constitution 
discourage oratory? (See Constitutions.) Is the individual for the 
state, or vice versa? Proofs. (See Constitutions, as well as other 
work.) Give two proofs that the Romans were practical. 

8. Stof'ies from Livy, 

a. Cinciyinatns the Dictator^ fifth century b.c. 

In time of great danger from the Sabines, it was determined 
to make Ciiicinnatus dictator. This man, "the sole hope of 
the Roman people," cultivated a farm of four acres. "There, 
either leaning on a stake in a ditch which he was digging, or 
. . . ploughing, . . . being requested by the ambassadors to 
listen to the commands of the Senate," he was saluted Dictator 
of Rome. 

Going immediatel}'^ thither, he led the citizens against their 
foes, and soon returned victorious. " The leaders of the 
enemy were led before his car; . . . his army followed, laden 
with spoil." Having finished his task, he resigned his dictator- 
ship on the sixteenth day of holding it, and returned to his 
farm. 

h. " Piiblius ValeriuH, allowed by universal consent to be the 
ablest man in Rome, . . . died in the height of his glory, but so 
poor that means to defra}- the expenses of his funeral were 
wanting," and he was buried at the public charge. 

r. Plutarch tells of Mamus Curio, "who, though he was 
the greatest man in Rome, had subdued the most warlike 
nations, and driven Pyrrhus out of Italy, cultivated a little 
spot of ground with his own hands, and after three triumphs 
lived in a cottage. Here the ambassadors of the Samnites 
found him in the chimney-corner, dressing turnips, and offered 
him a large present of gold ; but he absolutely refused it, and 



148 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

gave tlieiii this answer : A man who can be satisfied with 
such a supper hath no need of gold ; and I think it were 
more glorious to conquer the owners of it than to have it 
myself." 

d. The Gauls in Rom.e^ 390 b.c. 

" As there was not a hope that the city could be defended, so 
small a number of troops now remained, it was determined that 
the youth fit for military service and the abler part of the senate 
. . . should retire within the citadel . . . and . . . thence . . . de- 
fend the deities . . . and the Roman name." The mass of the peo- 
ple were to be left undefended. ' ' And in order that the plebeians 
. . . might bear the thing with greater resignation, the aged 
men, who had enjoyed triumphs and consulships . . . declared 
that they would die along with them and . . . not burden the 
scanty stores of the armed men ; . . . and having returned to 
their houses, they awaited the enem3''s coming with minds . . . 
prepared for death. Such of them as had borne offices, . . . 
arraying themselves in the most magnificent garments worn 
by persons riding in triumph, seated themselves in their ivory 
chairs, in the middle of their halls. . . . The Gauls . . . enter- 
ing the city next da}' . . . beheld with a sort of veneration men 
sitting in the porches of the palaces who . . . bore a striking- 
resemblance to gods in the majesty of their looks and the 
gravity of their countenances. Whilst they stood gazing 
on these as on statues . . . one of them roused the anger 
of a Gaul by striking him . . . while the latter was strok- 
ing his beard." This act broke the spell under which the 
l)arbarians seemed to be, and they slew the senators where they 
sat. 

The Gauls then sacked and burned the city and at last 
attacked the Capitol.^ Meanwhile, Camillus, wiio had been 
exiled from Rome by the people, knowing their great peril, 
calling many of the countrymen to arms, slaughtered numbers 
of the Gauls as they roamed the fields for plunder ; and 

1 The hill fortress of Rome where the chief temple of Jupiter stood. 



STUDY ON KEGAL AND PRiE-PUNIC ROME. 149 

presently, the Koraans without the city, desiring a man to lead 
them against the common enemy, '' resolved that Camilliis 
should be sent for . . . but not until the Senate at Rome was 
first consulted. . . . For this purpose a spirited youth . . . 
offered his services, and . . . made his way into Ihe Capitol over 
a portion of the rock . . . neglected by the enemy's guard, and 
. . . having received a decree of the Senate that Camillus 
should be . . . appointed Dictator . . . passed back the same 
way." 

Meanwhile, at Rome '' the time had come Avhen a sacrifice 
from the Fabian family was due on the Quirinal Hill." To per- 
form this, "Caius Fabius . . . descended from the Capitol . . . 
passed out through the midst of the enemy . . . and after duly 
performing . . . the sacred rites, came back with the same firm 
countenance and gait, confident that the gods were propitious, 
whose worship he had not neglected when prohibited by the 
fear of death." The men of the citadel were now suffering 
from famine, but yet spared the geese •' as being sacred to 
Juno," a circumstance of importance, since by their cacklings 
they aroused the sentinels upon a night when the Gauls were 
ascending an unguarded part of the Capitol. At last the Gauls 
and the men of the citadel, wearied out, were about to come to 
terms, when Camillus appeared with fresh forces, and compelled 
the Gauls to retire. 

It was now necessary to rebuild Rome, but many of the 
plebeians were desirous of removing to Veil, where man}- 
dwellings still stood empty. But Camillus argued with them, 
^' 'Consider the events of these latter j^ears. . . . You will 
find that all things succeeded with us whilst we followed the 
gods, and failed when we neglected them. . . . Though de- 
serted b}' gods and men, still we intermitted not the worship of 
the gods. Accordingly they have restored to us our country. 
We possess a city founded under auspices and auguries ; not a 
si)ot is there in it that is not full of religious rites and of the gods. 
... Is it right that these sacred things, coeval with the city, 
. . . should be abandoned to profanation? The assemblies of 



150 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOllY. 

the Centuries . . . where can they be held under auspices, 
unless where the}- are wont [to be held] ? . . . For my part 
I can see nothing more impious.' . . . Camillus is said to have 
moved them also b}' other parts of his speech, but chiefly by 
that which related to religious matters. But an expression 
seasonably uttered determined the matter while still undecided ; 
for when some troops . . . passed through the Forum in their 
march, a centurion . . . cried out, ^ Standard-bearer, fix your 
standard ! It is best for us to remain here.' Which expres- 
sion being heard, both the Senate came out from the senate- 
house, and all cried out that the}' embraced the omen, and . . , 
the building of the city commenced." 

e. The Judgment of Manilas arid the Devotioji of Deems. 

During the Latin war of 340-338, '^ Manlius and Decius 
being consuls, it is said that there appeared to both . . . during 
sleep, the same form of a man larger and more majestic than 
human, who said, ' Of the one side a general, of the other an 
army, is due to the infernal deities and to mother-earth ; from 
whichever army a general shall devote [to death] himself and 
the legions of the enemy, to that army shall belong the 
victory.'" In the morning, the consuls "having brought 
together the lieutenant-generals and tribunes and having openl}' 
expounded to them the commands of the gods, settled . . . that 
on whichsoever wing the Roman people should commence to 
give wa}', the consul on that side should devote himself [to 
death] for the Roman people." At the same time it was 
ordered that no one should leave his appointed place in order to 
flght the enemy. Now it happened that the son of Manlius, 
being sent out to reconnoitre, was provoked into a contest, in 
which however he was victorious. " When the consul heard 
this, ... he ordered an assembly to be summoned. . . . AVhen 
these assembled in great numbers, he said : ' Since you, 
Titus Manlius, revering neither the consular power nor a 
father's majesty, have fought against the enemy out of your 
post contrary to our orders, and . . . since either the authority 



STUDY ON KEGAL AND PR^-PUNIC ROME. 151 

of consuls is to be established b}' 3'oiir death, or by your for- 
giveness to be forever annulled ; ... go, lictor, bind him to 
the stake.' . . . Tlie body of the youth, being covered with 
spoils, was burned on a pilc."^ Soon afterwards the Romans 
marched forth to battle, Decius commanding the left. The 
Roman spearmen on this side were the first to give way, where- 
upon the consul Decius called upon the Pontifex Maximus to 
dictate to him the words in which he must devote himself. 
'' The pontiff directed him to take the gown called prcetexta, 
and with his head covered, . . . standing upon a spear placed 
under his feet, to say these words : ' Jupiter, father Mars . . . 
ye divinities under whose power we and our enemies are, I pray 
you . . . that you will prosperously grant strength and victor}^ 
to the Roman people . . . and that ye may afflict the enemies of 
the Roman people . . . with terror, dismay, and death. In 
such manner as I have expressed in words, so do I devote the 
legions and auxiliaries of the enemy, together with myself, to 
the infernal deities ... in behalf of the republic' . . . Having 
uttered this prayer, . . .he, girding himself, . . . and fully 
armed, mounted his horse and rushed into the midst of the 
enemy. . . . But when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, in- 
stantly the Latins, thrown into manifest consternation, took to 
flight; " while the Romans, " their minds being free from relig- 
ious dread," fought with new ardor and won the day. 

STUDY ON 8. 

What do the incidents, a, b, c, show us of the style of Roman life ? 
Of what they cared for ? Throughout the story d, what seems to be 
regarded as of prime importance? Name three or four qualities of 
character shown by the patricians. AVhat characteristic appears in 
the fact that Caniillus will not lead the army until the Senate has 
appointed him ? 

In story e, what qualities displayed by Manlius? By Decius? 
What do we learn of religion and the importance of forms? Of 
superstition ? Illustrate the same things from d 

1 A similar story was told of Brutus, one of the first consuls of Rome, 
who condemned his own sons to death for treason to the state. 



152 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



B. II. STUDY ON EEPUBLIOAN EOME, PUNIO PERIOD, 
264-146 B.C. 

Contemporary authority : Polybius. 
Other original authorities : Livy, Plutarch. 
Chief modern authority : Mommsen, Duruy. 



Note on Carthage and Carthaginian Dominion. — At 264 b.c. 

the Carthaginian dominion included a good portion of Sicily, Corsica, 
and Sardinia, and parts of the Spanish coast. With these modifica- 
tions, the map below fairly represents the territories ruled or influ- 
enced respectively by Rome and Carthage. 







ROUTE of HANNIBAL 
ROMAN DOMIN 
CARTHAGINIAN 



AT2I8B.C. 



Carthage was herself originally a Tyrian colony; for the ground 
she held she paid rent to the native Africans, even after she was 
highly prosperous ; and, although protected by deserts, by seas, and 
by distance, she occasionally paid tribute to the Persian and Egyptian 
kings. Her government was an aristocracy of wealth, and her armies 
were mercenaries obtained in the best market. 

It was said in antiquity that every foreign mariner found sailing in 
the western Mediterranean was seized and drowned by the Carta's 
ginians. 



STUDY ON llEPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. 153 

STUDY ON MAP AND NOTE. 

What great geographical contrast between the Roman and Cartha- 
ginian dominion at 264 u.c. ? Wliat occupation indicated by the 
distribution of Carthaginian lands ? Explain how every fact men- 
tioned in the note is connected with this occupation. What was the 
Carthaginian ideal? How do you fancy the Carthaginian compared 
Avith the Roman civilization? Why? 

1. Chronological Sii^nmary of the Greater Events of the 
Punic Period, 265-201. 

The Mamertines, a band of Campanian mer- 
cenaries, hold the Sicilian Messana and are liard 
beset by the Syracusan Greeks. Among tliem. 



365 

TO 

364. 



one party is for asking Roman, the other, Carthaginian, aid. 
The former party triumphs, sends an embassy to Rome, 
whence aid is voted and troops are sent. Before they 
reach Messana, however, the Carthaginian party brings 
about a peace, and sends word to the Romans that their 
presence is no longer necessary. The Romans, however, 
persist in their advance, expel the Carthaginian garrison, 
and obtain possession of Messana for themselves. There- 
upon, the First Punic War begins. 

The Romans build a fleet. — Indecisive war in 



360 

Sicily, Africa, and the Sicilian waters. Four I to 
fleets and four armies and at least a sixth of the ' — - — - 
citizens of Rome perish. 

Private Roman citizens equip a new fleet of { 
two hundred ships manned by 60,000 men, and | 



beat the Carthaginians, who at once sue for peace. They 
gain it on condition of surrendering Sicily and paying 
nearly 14,000,000. 

Interval between First and Second Punic 



341 

War. — Carthaginian mercenaries, denied their [ to 

full pay, mutiny, and ar'^ joined by the Libyan ' '- — 

subjects of Carthage. Thereupon, the mercenary garri- 



154 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

sons in Sardinia offer to surrender that island to Rome. 
Kome accepts it, and soon adds Corsica. Appealed to by 
Greek and Italian mariners and merchants, she puts down 
the Illyrian pirates. She thus gains dominion in Illyria, 
becomes the ally of several Greek towns, and is admitted 
to sliare in the Greek games and the Greek worship. 
Attacked by the Kelts of northern Italy, she conquers 
them, and extends her power to the Alps, planting 
colonies and building roads throughout her new posses- 
sions. She also accepts as allies several Spanish towns, 
notably Saguntum. 

Hamilcar, general-in-chief of the Carthaginians, retain- 
ing his command by a free use of money at home, subdues 
revolted Libya, and makes of Spain a Carthaginian prov- 
ince, whose wealth maintains a well-trained Spanish army. 
At his death this force passes under the command of 
Hannibal^ his son. 

Hannibal besieges and takes Saguntum, and the Second 
Punic War begins. (See map, p. 152.) 

Hannibal leads his Spanish and Carthaginian 
army over the Alps into Gaul, where he is joined 
at once by the Kelts, who seize this chance to 
revolt from Rome, and with Avliom he has already formed 
alliances. Thence he marches through Italy, which he 
harries and plunders, and nearly subdues by four great 
victories. The last of these is at Caringe, where one- 
seventh of the Italian forces perish. Thereupon, Syracuse 
and Macedon ally themselves with Carthage; many of the 
Italian towns, to whicli Hannibal promises liberty, accept 
him as friend, though the colonies stand by Rome. 

Rome now decrees that the days of mourning for the 
dead of Canna; shall be sliortened ; that new legions shall 
beat once enrolled, including criminals and slaves; that 
new weapons shall at once be forged, and that, meanwhile, 



218 
TO 
301. 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. 155 

arms shall be taken from the temples, from the dedicated 
spoils of former victories. Now foUoAV the siege and fall 
of Syracnse ; Macedon is brought to terms ; the Scipios, 
who sailed for Spain when Hannibal crosse<l the Alps, 
finally wrest it from Carthage ; town by town Italy 
returns to Rome ; the Carthaginians are niggardly of help 
to Hannibal ; still the war holds on. Rome is pressed for 
funds ; but her richer soldiers oft'er to fight without pay ; 
the creditors of the state delay or decline to demand their 
dues, and again a fleet is fitted forth by private effort. 
Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, now appears in the north 
of Italy, but is thoroughly defeated. The greatest of the 
Scipios now sails for Africa to threaten Carthage itself. 
Hannibal is recalled, and the battle of Zama is fought, 
resulting in complete and decisive victory for Scipio and 
Rome. 

Carthage accepts the following terms : inde 
pendence within her own boundaries ; the sur 



render of all her war-ships but ten ; an annual tribute of 
$240,000 for fifty years; the formal cession of Spain, 
Sardinia, and Corsica to Rome ; the acknowledgment 
of Massinissa as king of Numidia. 

STUDY ON I. 

What do we know of the comparative power and reputation of 
Rome and Carthage at 264 b.c, and how do we know it? What 
spirit was shown by the Romans in the First Punic AVar? What in 
the second, and on what occasion? Compare Carthage with Rome in 
this respect. On what and on whom was Carthage dependent for suc- 
cess in these two wars? On what and whom, Rome? Which had the 
surer dependence ? Why did Carthage fail ? Where do we find 
greatness on the Carthaginian side in the second war? Where on 
the Roman ? 

2. Siintniari/ of Evetits, 201-146. 

Rome degrades from their former rank and privilege all 
who failed her in the war with Hannibal, and much of 



156 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Italy thus becomes purely subject territory, throughout 
which the Romans build fortresses, extend roads, and settle 
colonies of Punic veterans. 

The Romans appealed to by the Greeks for aid against 
Philip, king of Macedonia, enter into war with him, aided 
by Numidians and Illyrians. 

The Macedonian war ends with the following 
treaty : — that Philip shall lose all his posses- 



197. 



sions in Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece ; shall make no 
alliance without the consent of Rome, nor make war 
against civilized states; that his army shall not exceed 
5000 men, and that all but five decked ships shall be 
given to the Romans ; that he shall send troops to Rome 
when requested, and pay $1,250,000. Greece is declared 
free from Macedonian and all foreign dominion. 

Antiochus the Great, of Asia, having harassed 
or taken possession of various Asiatic Greek 
cities, lands in Europe, and attacks the Helles- 



196 

TO 

190. 



pontine Greeks ; Rome interferes in their behalf, and is 
thus drawn into an Asiatic war with Antiochus. 

Battle of Magnesia and treaty of peace between 
Antiochus and Romans, by which Antiochus sur- 



190. 



renders Asia Minor west of the Halys and the Taurus, 
all his European claims, all but ten vessels of his fleet, and 
pays to Rome more than $19,000,000. The Asiatic Greeks 
are for the most part declared independent. 

Accumulating complaints against the Mace- 
donian power. Greece divided into parties, of 
which one looks to Rome, the other to Mace- 



190 

TO 

173. 



don, for aid. 

War between Rome and Macedon, each aided 
by a strong Greek party ; the battle of Pydna 
and the fall of the Macedonian king close the 



173 

TO 

168. 



war ; and the following terms of peace are agreed upon : 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN HOME, PUNIC PERIOD. 157 



"Tlie Macedoiiifiiis are to live free . . . governed by their 
own laws and . . . magistrates, and . . . pay to tlie Uonian 
people one-half of the taxes they have paid to their kings." 
At first, they are not allowed to work their own mines of 
gold and silver. Laws are given them by the Romans, 
and they are divided into fonr districts, between which 
there is to be no mtermarriage, no free trade in land. As 
for the Greeks, they come partly under the protection, and 
in some cases under the subjection, of Rome. 

In Spain, revolt, brigandage, and piracy ; in 
Greece and Macedonia, constant quarrels of par- 
ties, of cities ; in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, 
endless Avars, and difficulties among kings and princes over 



168 

TO 

146. 




the succession to various thrones, and the ownership of 
various territories ; from all these places constant appeals 
come to Rome for judgment or for aid. The result of 
Roman interference is that Macedonia, Greece, Spain, and 
most of Asia Minor are made into Roman provinces, pure 
and simple ; that is. they are governed directly from Rome 
by an officer called a Prpetor or Proconsul, who keeps the 
peace, governs, collects the provincial tribute for Rome ; 
the Proconsuls are changed from year to year, and gain 
their office by election and appointment from Rome. The 



158 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Cartliagiiiians, meanwhile, are plundered and robbed by 
Massinissa, king of Niimidia. Unable to obtain a fair 
liearing at Rome, they at length attempt to defend them- 
selves. Rome now declares war against Carthage, on the 
ground that the latter has attacked Massinissa, her ally ; 
the Carthaginians offer complete surrender; Rome de- 
mands all their stores and munitions of war by land and 
sea, the total destruction of their present cit}^, and a 
promise that they shall dwell in tiie future at least ten 
miles from the coast. Thereupon, the Third Punic War 
begins, closing in 146 Avith the utter destruction of 
Carthage. The city is burned, its site is turned with the 
plow, its territory becomes the Roman province of Africa. 

STUDY ON 2. 

What spirit shown by Rome in the Third Punic War ? In the set- 
tlement of Italian affairs ? Of Greek ? Why could not the Greeks 
remain independent? What indication have we that, on the whole, 
Rome was a good ruler in Italy ? 

Look over the causes of all the Avars of this j)eriod ; vs'hat do they indi- 
cate of the comparative greatness of Rome among the Mediterranean 
lands, and how do they show this ? What kind of greatness had she the 
reputation for? ]N"ame three things that Rome gains from these wars. 

In what geographical order does Rome win her dominion? How 
does she confirm it ? Wliat new part enters into the Roman constitu- 
tion ? What principle of government, new to Rome, introduced witli 
it? In the treaty with Philip, 197 B.C., what relation does Rome 
assume toward civilized states? Of what use are her conquests to 
the conquered? It is often said that Rome, at the opening of the 
Punic period, was so great that she must become greater. Explain 
what this means by reference to the events of this period. What lands 
will now be naturally added to the Roman dominion ? 

3. Eoctracts from Llvy Illustrative of Second Punic War, 

a. Hannibal in the Alps. 

"On the ninth day they came to the summit of the Alps, 
chiefly through places trackless, and after many mistakes in 



STUDY OX llEPtJBLlCAK KOIVIE, PUNIC PERIOD. 159 

their way, wliicli were caused either by the treacliery of tlie 
guides, or . . . hy enteriug valleys at randoiu. . . . For two 
days they remained encamped on the sunnnit ; and rest was 
given to the soldiers, exhausted with toil and fighting. . . . On 
the standards being moved forward at daj^break, when the 
nrmy proceeded slowly over places entirely blocked up with 
snow, and languor and despair strongh' appeared in the counte- 
nances of all, Hanni])al, having advanced before the standards, 
and ordered the soldiers to halt on a certain eminence, whence 
there was a prospect far and wide, points out to them Italy and 
the plains of the Po extending themselves beneath the Alpine 
mountains ; and said ' that after the first, or, at most, the 
second battle, they would have the citadel and capital of Italy in 
their power and possession.' . . . They then came to a rock . . . 
formed of such perpendicular ledges, that a light-armed soldier, 
carefully making the attempt, and clinging with his hands to 
the bushes and roots around, could with difficulty lower him- 
self. . . . When the cavalry had halted here, ... it was 
announced to Hannibal . . . that the rock was impassable. . . . 
The soldiers being then set to make a way down the cliff, . . . 
having felled and lopped a number of large trees which grew 
around, made a huge pile of timber ; and as soon as a strong 
wind fit for exciting the flames arose, they set fire to it, and 
pouring vinegar on the heated stones, they rendered them soft 
and crumbling. They then opened a way with iron instruments 
through the rock thus heated by the fire, and softened its decliv- 
ities by gentle windings, so that not only the beasts of burden, 
but also the elephants could be led down. Four days w^ere 
spent about this precipice, the beasts nearly perishing of 
hunger." 

b. Incidents connected imtli the Fight at Trasimene. 

Before the battle, many prodigies were reported at Rome. It 
was said that " an ox had of his own accord ascended to the 
third story of a house ; . . . that the appearance of ships had 
been brightly visible in the sky, and that the Temple of Hope in 



160 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY, 

the herb-market had been struck by lightning : . . . that . <, 
figures resembling men dressed in white raiment had been t^^en 
in several places at a distance, l)ut had not come close ta any 
one ; that in Picenum it had rained stones." On account of 
these prodigies, unusual prayers, sacrifices, and gifts to the 
gods were decreed by the state, and "greatly relieved the 
public mind." 

Flaminius was one of the consuls for that j^ear, and he had 
left Rome for his army without the customary auspices ; where- 
upon the Senate "unanimously resolved that he should be 
recalled and brought back, and be constrained to perform in 
person every duty to gods and men before he went to the 
arm3^" He did not, however, return, but advanced to meet 
Hannibal, and fell in the disastrous defeat of Lake Trasimene, 
where he had thus exhorted the soldiers: " vStand and fight; 
for" you " cannot escape ... by vows and prayers to the gods, 
but by exertion and valor." After this;^ reverse it was deter- 
mined to appoint a dictator ; but since his nomination rested 
with the consuls, one of whom was absevit and the other dead, 
the people gave Fabius Maximus the p(;wers of dictator, with 
the title of pro-dictator. He at once assembled the Senate, 
and, " after he liad distinctly proved to the fathers that Caius 
Plaminius had erred more from neglect of the ceremonies and 
auspices than from temerity and want of judgment," they 
iecreed new vows, festivals, and sacrifices to the gods. "Divine 
things having been performed " with due attention and care, 
Fabius turned his attention to the needs of the war. 

c. The Battle of Cannoe,. 

The consuls commanding on this occasion were Varro and 
Paulus ; the desire of the former was to fight, the policy of the 
latter to annoy the Carthaginian forces. They held command 
on alternate days, both armies being in camp. Hannibal 
" provoked the enemy by a skirmishing attack. . . . Upon this, 
the Roman camp !)egan again to be embroiled by a mutin}^ 
among the soldiers and the disagreements of the consuls"; 



STUDY ON KEPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. 161 

but notliiiig w.ns done, since Paulus was for that day general. 
But " Vavro, on the following day, . . . witliout consulting his 
colleague, displayed the signal for battle, and forming his 
troops, led them across the river. Paulus followed, because he 
could better disapprove of the proceeding than withhold his 
assistance." Thus, then, the Romans were led at the battle of 
Cannffi, where so many of them perished. When the news of 
this defeat reached Rome, among other measures, " Quintus 
Fabius Pictor was . . . sent to Delphi to enquire of the oracle 
by what prayers and offerings they might appease the gods. . . . 
INIeanwhile, certain extraordinary sacrifices were performed, 
according to the directions of the books of the fates ; among 
which a Gallic man and woman and a Greek man and woman 
were [buried] alive in the cattle-market." 

As for the captives, the Senate refused to ransom them, 
partly because they preferred slaves to men who had allowed 
themselves to be taken alive in the midst of "so many examples 
of courage," and partly because " they were neither willing to 
drain the treasury . . . nor to enrich Hannibal." 

d. The Close of the War. 

The Second Punic War was over, and the Carthaginian ambas- 
sadors came to Rome to treat of peace ; and while negotiations 
were going on, the " tribunes of the people put them the ques- 
tion as to whether they willed and ordered that the Senate 
should decree that peace should be made with the Cartha- 
ginians? Whom they ordered to grant that peace, and whom 
to conduct the army out of Africa? All the tribes ordered . . . 
that Publius Scipio should grant the peace, and . . . conduct 
the army home. Agreeabl}' to this order, the Senate decreed 
that P. Scipio . . . should make peace with the Carthaginian 
people." 

The Carthaginians, " finding difficulty in raising the first sum 
of money to be paid, as their finances were exhausted by a 
protracted war, and, in consequence, great lamentation and 
grief arising in the Senate-liouse, it is said that Hannibal was 



162 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



observed laughing," and being rel)nked for it, lie answered, 
''When the spoils were torn down from vanquished Carthage, 
when you beheld her left unarmed and defenceless amid so 
many armed nations of Africa, none heaved a sigh. Now, 
because a tribute is to be levied from private property, you 
lament with one accord." 

STUDY ON 3, a, &, c, d. 

What greatness did Hannibal display? What held his aripy 
together ? What was their motive in fighting ? Compare in strength 
with the Roman motive. Xame all the difficulties met in this pas- 
sage of the Alps. 

What do incidents of h show of religious life among the Romans in 
general? What seems to have been the religious attitude of Fla- 
minius, of Fabius, and the Senate ? What does the incident of the 
election of Fabius show the Roman people careful for? Where have 
you seen this same carefulness before? Name three qualities of 
Roman character shown in the incidents of the captives. 

What fault in Roman organization is very plainly shown at Cannae? 
What Roman magistrate was needed at such a crisis ? Why ? What 
characteristics of Rome appear when she receives news of the defeat ? 
(See also "List of Events.") In whose hands was the political 
power at Rome in reality? In name? 

How did the Carthaginians, in this case, show themselves true to 
their character and their ideal ? 

In General. — Describe the ideal Roman of the period of the Sec- 
ond Punic AYar. 

4. List of the 3Iost Noteworthy 3Ien of the Punic Period, 

Those marked * belong to the period after the close of 
the Second Punic War. 



Name. 


Birth, Circumstance. 


■ 
Cause of Fame. 


.Emilias 
Lepidus, 

^^Einihus 
Paulus, 


Roman patrician. 
Roman patrician. 


Consul; maker of .Emilian road in 
North Italy. 

Consul ; conqueror of Macedon. 



STUDY ON IIEPUBLICAN HOME, PUNIC PERIOD. 168 



^Androiiicus, 

jecilius, 

Tato the Elder, 



'^Cato the Young- 
er (of Utica), 
*Ennius, 



Fabius Maxiraiis 
Flaminii, 
Marcellus, 
*N8evius, 

*Plautus, 

*Polybius, 

Kegulus, 

Scipio Africanus 

the Elder, 
*Scipio Africa- 
nus the Younger, 
*Terence, 



Birth, Circumstance. 

Tarentuni ; a 
slave. 

]\Iilan; Keltic 

slave. 
Koinan plebeian. 



Roman plebeian. 

Apulia; Italian 
freeman. 

Roman patrician. 

Roman 
plebeians. 

Roman 
l)lebeian. 

Campania; Ro- 
man citizen. 

Umbria; son of 

a freedman. 
Greece; free 

citizen. 
Roman ; 

patrician (1). 
Roman ; 

patrician. 
Roman ; 

patrician. 
Carthage; slave, 



Cause of Fame. 



Presented first dramas ever seen at 
Rome ; subjects from Greek sources ; 
translator of Homer into Latin. 

Author of Latin comedies after Greek 
models. 

Censor; famous orator in Senate ; at- 
tempted to restore Roman manners 
and morals, as before the Punic wars; 
author of works on agriculture, law, 
war, morals, politics, and history. 

Senatorial orator; stoic; commander 
in civil war in Africa for Pompey. 

Translator of Greek dramas ; author 
of poem in Greek measure on 
Punic wars. 

Consul and Dictator," shield of Rome," 
and " Delayer " of Hannibal. 

Consuls ; makers of Flaminian road. 

Consul , conqueror of Syracuse in 

Second Punic War. 
Translator of Greek dramas ; autlior 

of political satires and a poem on 

the First Punic War. 
Author of Latin comedies after Greek 

models. 
Friend and teacher of younger Scipio ; 

author of a Roman history. 
Consul; commander in First Punic 

War. 
Consul ; conqueror of Spain, and 

victor of Zama. 
Consul ; conqueror of Carthage, and 

later victorious in Spain, 
Author of Latin comedies after Greek 

models. 



164 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

STUDY ON 4. 

What kinds of greatness displayed by the native Romans? In wliat 
class does this greatness mostly appear? What kind of greatness is 
brought to Rome from outside? Mostly from what source? 

5. Incidents, Extracts^ and Facts Illustrative of Ijater 
Punic Pernod. (Unref erred quotations from Livy.) 

a. The Trial of Scipio and Others, 

After the Second Punic War, Scipio was brought to trial on 
the charges of bribery, and of living too luxuriously in winter- 
quarters at Syracuse. Ordered to make his defense, he said, 
"... On the anniversary of this day I fought with Hannibal 
and tlie Carthaginians with good success. . . . Therefore, . . . 
I will immediately go to the Capitol, there to return my ac- 
knowledgments ... to the deities . . . Such of you ... as it 
suits come with me and beseech the gods that you may have 
commanders like myself." So he went up to the Capitol ; and 
" the whole assembly turned about and followed " ; nor was he 
afterward brought to trial, it being said " that Publius Scipio 
. . . had risen to such . . . dignity, that were he to stand as a 
criminal ... it would reflect more disgrace on the Romans than 
on him." 

Michelet tells us that when a son-in-law of the great Fabius, 
Hannibal's opponent, was accused of treason, his father-in-law 
was able to clear him by simply stating that he was innocent. 

When one of the Metelli was accused of extortion, and doc- 
uments to prove it were placed before the judges, the whole 
tribunal turned away their eyes, in order not to be convinced 
of the guilt of one whose ancestor had won a Punic victory, 
and many of whose family had held high office in the state. 

b. Office-gettimg and holding. 

The consuls, censors, and other high officers of Rome were 
unpaid ; for it was thought beneath the dignity of a citizen to 
serve the state for pay : yet men were so eager to gain these 
places, that they spent thousands of dollars in getting up games 



STUDY ON llEPUBLICAN KOME, PUNIC PEHiOD. 1G5 

and shows to guiii the votes of the popukice. Often, too, they 
bought up quantities of foreign (mostly Sicilian) grain, and 
sold it to the Romans for almost nothing. Sometimes such 
supplies were sent as gifts from the provincials to the magis- 
trates whose favor they wished to gain. 

One of the kings of Asia sometimes amused himself thus : 
" Having assumed the Roman gown ... he used to go about 
the market-place, as he had seen done b}' candidates for oflice 
at Rome, saluting and embracing each of the plebeians . . . 
until at last he obtained " mock office by their votes. 

Sa3^s Cato, "He who steals from a burgess ends his daj's in 
chains and fetters ; he who steals from the community ends 
them in gold and purple." 

c. The Italian Allies. 

Even in the Second Punic War the burden of service was 
heavier for the Italian allies than for Rome ; in the Macedonian 
war the legions took such additions as were desirable from the 
allies, with no regard to a just proportion, so that the Italians 
were sometimes twice as many as the Romans ; in the war with 
Antiochus reinforcements were sent to the consuls, of which 
the allies furnished two-thirds of the men ; but, in the partition 
of booty, they sometimes received only half as much as the 
Romans, while, in the grants of conquered land, they were 
given less than a third of a Roman soldier's share. 

In one of the allied Italian towns a Roman consul caused the 
magistrates to be flogged because the}' had not supplied him 
with provisions. In another, a praetor who wished to use the 
public baths expelled every one from them, and, for some neg- 
ligence, caused one of the quaestors of the town to be whipped. 
In another, the wife of a consul ordered the first magistrate of 
the place t(^be treated in the same manner. 

fl. The Triumph of Paidus for the Macedonian War. 

"All the temples were open, and were wreathed with gar- 
lands and smoking with incense. . . . Although the gorgeous 
spectacle was destined to occupy three days, as we have 



166 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

alread}" mentioned, yet the first day scarcely sufficed for the 
procession of the statues and paintings, which were phiced on 
250 chariots. The next day all the most beautiful and most 
magnificent arms of the Macedonians were carried along on 
many wagons ; and these arms were glittering with all the 
brightness of steel or lately-polished brass. Then more than 
750 vases, filled with coined silver, were borne along by 3000 
men. Each vase contained three talents, and was borne by 
four men. There were some who bore silver bowls, and gob- 
lets, and cups, and vessels made of horn, remarkable as well 
for the beauty of their arrangement as for their size and weight 
and the surpassing workmanship of the raised carving. On the 
third day, at the very dawn, the trumpeters began the march, 
. . . sounding their war-notes as if they were advancing to 
battle. A hundred and twenty fat oxen with gilded horns and 
adorned with fillets and wreaths of flowers were led along. . . . 
Then was seen the sacred goblet, ten talents in weight, adorned 
with precious gems, which Paulus had ordered to be made, and 
also the goblets of Antigonus and Seleucus, and the cups made 
by Thericles and other distinguished artists. . . . After them 
came the chariot of Perseus, laden with his arms, and a diadem 
in addition. . . . Then 400 golden crowns were carried along, 
which had been sent by almost all the states of Greece and 
Asia, through their ambassadors, as gifts to Paulus, and an 
expression of their joy for his victory." 

STUDY ON 5, a-d. 

To what does Scipio declare himself superior? Who agree with 
him? "Why is he allowed this superiority? What assembly has 
the greatest political power at Rome? Xame all the ways in which 
its favor is gained. What change do you notice in the character of 
the Roman people since the beginning of the Punic war#? What do 
you infer, from Cato's remark, was the common reason for desiring 
ofiice ? What class of men could not obtain or hold office on account 
of their condition? What constitutional measure might have opened 
office to them ? (Compare with the Athenian democracy under Peri- 
cles.) 



STUDY ON KEPUJJLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. 167 

What class of })eople are oppressed by tlie Koiuaiis? What daiigei 
may threaten liome in consequence? 

AVhat effect would such a triumph as heie described have upon the 
life of Rome? Its art? Its ideas? Its ambitions? Its civiliza- 
tion ? 

0. Manners^ Custotna, Life., and Thought of the Feriod. 

The soldiers who went against Antiochus "first brought to 
Ivome gilded couches, rich tapestries, and . . . other works of 
the loom. . . . At entertainments . . . were introduced players 
on the harp and timbrel, with buffoons for the diversion of the 
guests ; . . . the cook . . . became highly valuable," and cook- 
ing was regarded as an art. Poems on the art of good living, 
with long lists of dainties, were in vogue. " In Rome," Polybius 
tells us, " nobody gives to any one unless he must do so, and no 
one pa^^s a penny before it falls due, even among near rela- 
tives." The descendants of those who had once filled the 
highest offices, such as those of consul, censor, and pnetor, were 
now allowed by law to place the wax images of these famous 
ancestors in their family hall, and to have them carried in their 
funeral procession. They were also distinguished from other 
citizens by purple-striped tunics and other ornaments. The 
senators were now given separate and superior seats in the 
theatre. 

Farms were mostly worked by slaves, and the following were 
some of the maxims concerning them. " A slave must either 
work or sleep." " So many slaves, so many foes." " Let the 
father of a family," counselled Cato, "sell his old carts, old 
iron, the sick slave, the old slave, and all that he can sell." 
' • A good watch-dog must not be on too intimate terms with his 
fellow-slaves," said another Roman. These slaves were mostly 
foreigners captured in war. 

It was during this period that the Romans began to amuse 
themselves regularly with gladiatorial ^ and wild-beast fights, 

' 'Die gladiators were slaves, mostly captives taken in war, who were 
tliurougldy trained for hand-to-hand combats of all sorts. 



168 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

which the senate vainly tried to suppress. On one occasion, 
Greek flute-players were introduced, but their music failed to 
please, whereupon they were directed to begin a boxing-match, 
which gave most perfect satisfaction. It was said that the 
audience would always leave a play, if rope-dancing or fighting 
were to be seen. 

Accounts of the expenses for auspices, sacrifices, and the 
support of the national faith were kept as exactly as, and to- 
gether with, the accounts for the cook, nurse, and the house- 
hold in general. 

From Cato. — "A man must augment his substance, and he 
is deserving of praise and full of a divine spirit whose account- 
books, at his death, show that he has gained more than he has 
inherited." "Believe me, those statues from Syracuse were 
brought into this city with hostile effect. I already hear too 
many commending and admiring the decorations of Athens 
and Corinth, and ridiculing the earthen images of our Roman 
gods that stand on the fronts of their temples. For my part, 
I prefer these gods, — propitious as they are." 

There was circulated through Italy at this time a book, ex- 
plaining the gods to be personified powers of nature, or, in 
other words, to be merely allegorical. In one of the dramas of 
Ennius occurs this passage : — 

" I shall always say, as I have said, that the gods are in heaven, 
But careless, I think, of the actions of men ; for if gods were 

our rulers, 
Then the good should have good, and the evil have evil ; but 

who ever saw it?" 

At the battle of Pydna, an eclipse of the moon occurred. 
It was not, however, regarded as a bad omen, having been fore- 
told by a Roman- officer. 

At a certain celebration of the Latin festival, "religious 
scruples were felt . . . because, on the offering of one of the 
victims, the magistrates . . . had not prayed for the Roman 
people. . . . When the matter was brought before the Senate," 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. 1()9 

and they referred it to the . . . pontiffs ; these decreed that 
the whole festival must be repeated. 

STUDY ON e. 

What proofs can you give that Cato's fear of luxury has good rea- 
son ? (See also «.) What sort of a man is evidently adntired among 
the llomans at this period? AVhat do they care for? Proofs. 
Describe Cato's character. W^hat relation between it and the Prae- 
Punic type of Roman character? 

What gives a man entrance into the highest Roman " society " ? 
From your study of a and h, what kind of men do you see will be 
able to make this entrance ? This new Roman aristocracy, then, rests 
on what three bases ? How is labor regarded at Rome ? Why ? (See 
also &.) 

What class of people may become dangerous to Rome? Why? 

What effect will the distribution of grain at Rome have upon the 
market of the small farmers of Italy? If they sell their lands, what 
will stand in the way of their working in the large vineyards or cattle- 
farms ? How can they live at Rome, even if entirely ignorant of any 
other occupation than that of farming ? What sort of men will they 
become at Rome ? What class of population will be most numerous 
in the rural districts ? What evil will result from this state of affairs 
in the city of Rome ? What danger will threaten in the rural dis- 
tricts of Italy? How can you describe the Roman tastes of this 
period? As shown in amusements? In the list of great men? What 
cause can be found in the previous history in Rome for this ? 

What new way of regarding the old religious faith begins now? 
What danger is there for the state in these new views? What do 
the Romans seem to regard as the matter chiefly important in religion? 

Name all the ways in which Greece and the East are influencing 
Rome at this time. Name two ways in which this influence comes to 
Rome. 

Make a list of all the tendencies you have noticed in this period. 
How many of these tendencies are dangerous, and why? Name those 
politically dangerous ; socially ; religiously. 



170 STUDIES IN" GENERAL HISTOKY. 

B. III. STUDY ON EEPUBLIOAN EOME, POST-PUNIC 
PERIOD. 

Contemporary authorities : Julius Caesar, Cicero,, Sal- 
lust. 

Other original sources : Suetonius, Plutarch. 
Chief modern authority : Mommsen, Duruy. 

1. a, Suimnart/ of More JntporUmt Events, 146-78 B.C. 

The Sicilian slaves arm themselves against 
their masters; their revolt is suppressed by 
Roman troops. 



146 
TO 
115. 



Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, tribunes of the people, 
propose (a) that no citizen shall hold more than 320 acres 
of public land ; ^ (5) that all land in excess of this shall be 
divided among the poor of Italy and of Rome ; (<?) that 
Roman citizenship shall be extended to the Italians ; (c7) 
that corn shall be sold at a low price to all Roman citizens ; 
(e) that the Senate shall share its judicial power with the 
rich merchants and proprietors [knights] of Rome ; (/) 
that colonies of the poorer Roman citizens shall not only 
be planted in Italy, but also in the Provinces. Tiberius 
carries his measures against the Senate by means of the 
Assembly of the Tribes, and presents himself for reelection 
in spite of the Roman law ; hearing that violence is to be 
used against him on the election-day, his friends arm 
themselves with staves ; on that day a rumor runs through 
the Senate that Tiberius aims at kingly power ; arming 
themselves with bludgeons, and clubs, and the legs of the 
benches, the senators enter the Forum, and disperse the 
adherents of Gracchus, who is this day killed. 

Gaius Gracchus earnestly carries on tlie work of his 
brother ; the Senate decree him a public enemy, and arm 
1 Ijand gained and divided by the state among its citizens, 



115 
TO 
100. 



BEPUBLICAN KOME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 171 

themselves against him. His followers figlit in liis defence 
but are defeated, and Gains slain. Tluis end the "Dissen- 
sions of the Gracchi." 

South Gaul (^Provence) becomes a Roman province ; a 
road is built from the Rhone to the Pyrenees, and strong 
colonies founded (Aix). 

The heirs to the throne of Numidia quarrel, 
and appeal to Rome to decide between them. 
The senators, bribed by Jugurtha, one of these 
claimants, declare unjustly in his favor. Nevertheless, 
he flagrantly disobeys the positive comman*ls of the Senate, 
and massacres so many Italians within his dominion, that 
the Senate is forced to declare against him. They send 
an army into Africa under the command, first of Metellus, 
then of 3IarmSy who is assisted by Sulla. By these gene- 
rals Jugurtha is conquered and brought" captive to Rome, 
and Numidia rendered practically subject. 

Various Teutonic tribes threaten both Hither and Farther 
Gaul, and Marius, elected consuP in spite of the law for five 
successive years, at length repulses them in two famous 
battles, in one of which Sulla also is prominent. A second 
armed revolt of Sicilian slaves is repressed by the Roman 
armies with some difficulty. 

Drusus, tribune of the people, again brings 
forward the Gracchan proposals as to the division 
of lands and the enfranchisement of Italians ; he 



100 

TO I 

88. I 



is assassinated, and a law passed that all who favor the 
Italian claims are guilty of high treason to Rome. The 
'"Social War" breaks out, — a war of the Italian allies 
(^Socii) against Rome in order to gain the rights of Roman 
citizens ; both Sulla and JMarius are prominent and suc- 



1 It is important to remember tliat, in order to Le a Roman i^eneral, ong 
must be elected either consul or dictator. 



172 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

cessful in this war, which, nevertheless, results in giving 
the Roman franchise to the whole peninsula. 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, aided by discon- 
tented states and cities in Asia and Greece, 
makes war on Rome, who makes Sulla her com- 



mander-in-chief; thereupon the followers of Marius arm 
themselves, and drive the supporters of Sulla from the 
Forum. They next vote that Marius shall be general for 
the East. Sulla now leads his own troops to Rome, and 
defeats the soldiers of Marius ; the latter flees to Africa, 
while Sulla leav^ for Asia. 

Marius returns, lays siege to Rome, and takes it; his 
soldiers sVdy his enemies and plunder the city ; Marius, 
Avithout regular election, assumes the powers of a consul, 
but soon dies. His successor stands illegally as consul for 
three successive years, without being regularly elected. 
Both Marius and his followers support the measures of the 
Gracchi. 

Sulla, victorious over Mithridates, dictates terms of 
peace, and returns to Italy 83 B.C. He there reconquers 
the Marian party, enters Rome with his troops, and has 
more than 4000 of his enemies put to death by his sole 
order. At his own suggestion, he is made dictator for so 
long time as he shall tliink fit; he gives thousands of his 
soldiers grants of land in Italy. After two years, in which 
he seeks to strengthen the power of the Senate, he resigns 
the Dictatorship, and soon after dies (78 B.C.). 

STUDY ON I a. 

Look over the wars and disturhauces of the period, and tell how 
many and of what kinds they were. Judging from these wars and 
disturbances, what classes of people find themselves injured or 
oppressed by Roman rule ? What causes for these disturbances are 
to be found in the Punic period ? What class or classes of people are 



REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 173 

to be benefited by eacli measure of the (Ji-acchi? What class or 
classes Moukl oppose each, and wliy? Which measure seems to you 
bad, and why? Into wliat parties ai'e the people divided by the "Dis- 
sensions of tlie Gracchi"? What constitutional organization repre- 
sents each ? Which is the radical party? Which the conservative? 
In this case, whicli was the party of reform? Wliy should the 
Romans so violently oppose the Italian enfranchisement? What 
would the Italians gain by it? What faults of moral character dis- 
played by the Romans in this period? What great differences do you 
see between the political life of Rome in the time of the Gracchi and 
that life before and during the Punic period ? 

How do the followers of Marhis and Sulla break the laws of Rome ? 
In whose hands is the actual power during the civil wars of these two 
generals ? What necessities of Rome force power into their hands ? 

1. h, Suifiinary of Leading Events^ 78-27 B.C. 

Marian revolts against the government of Sulla 



78 

TO 

60. 



in Italy and Spain are put clown by Pompey. A 
revolt of the gladiator-slaves of Italy is suppressed 
by Crassus and Pompey. Pompey and Crassns both de- 
sire to stand for the consulship ; the Senate cannot legally 
grant this; but both are at the gates of Rome with their 
armies, and both are chosen to the desired office, each 
keeping an army near at hand. 

Cilician pirates render the Mediterranean and its coasts 
very dangerous for commerce and travel ; Pompey is 
chosen to subdue them, and given for the purpose abso- 
lute dictatorial power. In three months he renders the 
sea perfectly safe. 

A second war with Mithridates breaks out, and Pompey, 
chosen to end it, is appointed dictator for the East ; vic- 
torious, he turns Pontus, Syria, and Cilicia into Roman 
provinces (66-61). 

A conspiracy to burn and plunder Rome, headed by 
Catiline, is discovered and defeated by the eloquence 
and detective skill of Cicero. 



174 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



60 

TO 

27. 



Julius Ceesar, Pompey, and Crassus agree to 
help each other to gain the office which each 
wishes from Rome (^First Triumvirate^. Csesar 
is made consul, and introduces new laws for the dis- 
tribution of land among the poor, especially among 
the families of soldiers (60-59 B.C.). He conquers 
Gaul and makes of it a Roman province. Csesar and 
Pompey, supported by their respective armies, contend 
for the chief power at Rome ; the contest ends by the 
victory of Caesar at Pharsalus (48). QWars of the First 
Triumvirate^ 

After conquering the Pompeians in the provinces, Caesar 
returns to Rome, is appointed dictator for ten years, and 
soon after, for life. In this office he accomplishes, or 
urges on, the following measures: (a) the giving of 
Roman citizenship to Hither Gaul, and to some of the 
communities of Farther Gaul and Spain ; (^) the intro- 
duction of provincials (Gauls) into the Senate ; (c) a 
reform of the calendar, which has sufficed ever since ; (c?) 
the survey of the whole empire ; (e) the planting of 
Roman colonies in the provinces; (/) various public 
works for the improvement of Rome and Italy. 

Caesar is accused of aiming at kingly power, and a con- 
spiracy is formed against him. He is slain by its leaders, 
Brutus and Cassius. His friend, Mark Antony, and his 
adopted heir and nephew, Octavian Caesar, together with 
a certain Lepidus, agree to divide his power among them. 
Both parties gather troops ; but those of Brutus and 
Cassius are utterly defeated at Philippi (42). Civil 
war between the Triumvirs themselves ensues, but 
is ended by the victory of Octavian Caesar at Actium 
(31 B.C.). 

Octavian becomes Augustus Caesar, the first Emperor of 
Rome (27 B.C.). 



REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PtJKlC PERIOD. 



175 



STUDY ON I, (I AND b. 

What wrongs and \veaku<\s.se.s oi Roman rulfi are indicated by h ? 
Xanie in order the successive leaders oi the party of the (iracchi up 
to 27 B.C. By what means do these men and their opponents gain 
their power in the state? AVhat necessity forces the state to allow 
them this power ; illustrate from Marius, Sulla, Pompey. What other 
means are employed to gain power during the whole period 146-27 V 
[Gracchi and Cicero.] What sort of force does the emperor repre- 
sent? On what class of people is he dependent for his power? 
Which of the two parties of the pei'iod does he represent ? Name in order 
the men who hold imperial power from 146-27. Name in order the 
affairs which show the weakness of the Roman government. [Note 
the length of time of the disturbances at home compared with the 
foreign wars under Marius, Sulla, Pompey.] In what tlirection is it 
strongest? 

2. List of Noteivorthy Men and Works of Post-Punic 

Pe7nod, 

Contemporaries of Cicero (106-43 B.C.) marked *. 



Name. 


Birth, Circumstance. 


Cause of Fame. 


*Antony, Mark, 


Roman of consu- 
lar rank, but 
poor. 


See 1. h. 


*Brutus and 


Roman 

patrician. 


See 1. 6. 


*Cassius, 


Roman plebeian. 


See 1. b. 


*Ca?sar, Julius, 


Roman 


Author of military and historical com- 




patrician. 


mentaries on the Gallic wars ; see 1 h. 


*Catullus, 


Verona; of a 


Lyric poet, at first following Greek 




wealthy and 


models. 




notablefamily. 




*Cicero, 


Latium ; knight. 


Senatorial orator ; forensic pleader ; 
author of essays on friendship, old 
age, the gods, and other abstract sub- 
jects; his written orations are mas- 
terpieces of elegant and effective 
eloquence. 



176 



STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 


Birth, Circumstance. 


Cause of Fame. 


Gracchus, Gains, 


Roman 

patrician. 


See 1. a. 


Gracchus, 


Roman 


See 1. a. 


Tiberius, 


patrician. 




Lucretius, 


Rome ; of an- 


Philosophical poet ; his philosophy 




cient family ; 


founded on the atheistic teaching of 




knight(7). 


Epicurus. 


Marius, 


Latium ; 
plebeian. 


See 1. a. 


*Nepos, 


Cisalpine Gaul. . . 


Historian and biographer. 


Cornelius, 






*Pompey, 


Patrician. 


See 1. b. 


*Sallust, 


Land of the 


Historian of Catiline's conspiracy 




Sabines ; 


and the Jugurthine wars ; imitated 




plebeian. 


Greek models. 


Sulla, 


Roman patrician. 


See 1. a. 


*Varro, 


Land of the Sa- 


Author of works on agriculture and 




bines ; plebe- 


history ; the " most learned of the 




ian ; family of 


Romans." 




senatorial 






rank. 





During this time new and important roads were built 
in Italy itself, and extended to Gaul, Spain, and Mace- 
donia; the draining of the great Italian marshes was 
undertaken; the old aqueducts were repaired, and new 
ones built; new bridges were constructed; a new fish- 
market and forum were made at Rome ; and the Great 
Circus was enlarged. All these works were inaugurated 
and executed by the Roman magistrates. 

STUDY ON 2. 

Of the works of this period, which do you consider as peculiarly 
Roman? (Compare with the lists on pp. 96, 162.) What element 



REPUBLICAN romp:, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 177 

of character causes the Romans to produce and care for such works ? 
In wliat sorts of activity do the greatest llonians earn their fame? 
Wliat class produces, on the whole, the greatest men of this period ? 
Whence comes the literary greatness of Home, and how is it in- 
fluenced? What literary works are original to Rome? 

3. Illustrative Ertraefs from Contemporary and Origi- 
7tal Sources, 

a. The Jugurtldne War. (Abridged from Sallust.) 

Now Jugurtha " despatched ambassadors to Rome, with a 
profusion of gold and silver. . . . When these deputies had 
arrived at Rome, and had sent large presents, according to the 
prince's direction, ... so remarkable a change ensued, that 
Jugurtha, from being an object of the greatest odium, grew 
into great regard and favor with the nobility. . . . When the 
ambassadors, accordingly, felt sure of success, the senate, on 
a fixed day, gave audience to both parties. On that occasion, 
Adherbal . . . spoke to the following effect : — 

" ' My father, Micipsa, Conscript Fathers, enjoined me ... to 
consider the right and authority' as belonging to you ; . . . and 
to regard 3'ou as my kindred and relatives, saying, that ... I 
should find, in 30ur friendship, armies, riches, and all necessary 
defenses of my realm. By these precepts I was proceeding to 
regulate ni}' conduct, when Jugurtha . . . expelled me, . . . the 
hereditar}' friend and ally of the Roman people, from my king- 
dom and all my possessions. ... It is what 3^ou bestowed that 
has been wrested from me ; in my wrongs you are insulted. . . . 
I implore you, therefore. Conscript Fathers . . . b}' the majesty 
of the Roman people, ... to arrest the progress of injustice, 
and not to suffer the kingdom of Numidia ... to sink into 
ruin . . .' " The ambassadors of Jugurtha were then heard, 
and the senate proceeded to deliberate. " Yet that party gained 
the superiority . . . which preferred money and interest to jus- 
tice," and the kingdom was divided in the interests of Jugurtha. 
When, at last, the outrages of Jugurtha in Africa were 
reported at Rome, ..." the senate . . . from consciousness of 



178 STUDIES^ IK GEKEHAL HlSTOKl'. 

misconduct, became afraid of the people . . . An army was 
then raised to be sent into Africa." C)n its arrival, both its 
connnanders were tempted by Jngurtha with Ijribes, and were 
" seduced, by a vast sum of money, from integrity and honor 
to injustice and perfid}^, . . . and the next day Jugurtha was 
formally- allowed to surrender [on terms very favorable to him- 
self] .... When rumor had made known the affairs transacted 
in Africa, and the mode in which they had been brought to pass, 
. . . among the people, there was violent indignation ; as to the 
senators, whether they would ratify so flagitious a proceeding, 
or annul the act of the consul, was a matter of doubt. At 
this juncture a tribune of the people entreated them to bring 
the senators to judgment and to fetch Jugurtha to Eome as a 
witness." Jugurtha was accordingly brought, but " purchased, 
by a vast bribe, the aid of ... a tribune of the people, by whose 
audacity he hoped to be protected against the law." When 
Jugurtha was called upon to give his testimony, this tribune 
" enjoined the prince to hold his peace ; and though the multi- 
tude . . . were desperately enraged, . . . his audacity was at 
last triumphant. The people, mocked and set at naught, with- 
drew from the place of assembly ; and the confidence of 
Jugurtha . . . was greatly augmented." Soon after, Jugurtha 
was ordered by the senate to quit Italy, and the war was con- 
tinued under new commanders, of whom the best was Metellus. 
''When he arrived in Africa, the command of the army was 
resigned to him. . . . But neither had the camp been fortified, 
nor the watches kept ; . . . every one had been allowed to leave 
his post when he pleased. The camp-followers, mingled with 
the soldiers, wandered about day and night, i-avaging the 
countr}', robbing the houses, . . . carrying off cattle and slaves, 
which they exchanged with traders for foreign wine and other 
luxuries." Metellus at once gave " a general order that no one 
should sell bread, or any other dressed provisions, in the camp ; 
. . . and that no common soldier should have a servant, or 
beast of burden. . . . He moved his camp daily, exercising the 
soldiers by marches across the country ; he fortified it with a 



KEPtJBLICA^ HOME, I^OST-PUNIC PEHIOD. 179 

rMiiipnrt tinci a trench, exactly as if the enemy had Ijeen at 
hand. . . . Tlius, by preventing rather tlian punishing irregu- 
hirities, he in a short time rendered his army effective," and 
prosecuted the war with vigor. 

But now as liis lieutenant C'aius Marius was one day "sacri- 
ficing to the gods, an augur told him that great and wonderful 
things were presaged to him," and having ardently desired the 
consulship, he asked for leave of absence to offer himself a 
candidate at Rome. This Metellus refused to give. From 
that time Marius '• allowed the soldiers . . . more relaxation 
of discipline than he had ever granted them before. He talked 
of the war among merchants ; . . . saying ' that if but half of 
the army were granted him, he would, in a few days, have 
Jugurtha in chains ; but that the war w\as purposely protracted 
by the consul.' " He then induced "both soldiers and merchants 
to write to their friends at Rome, ... to intimate that Marius 
should be appointed general. The common people at Rome, 
having learned the contents of these letters," voted that Marius 
should be general in the African War, and thus rendered use- 
less the previous decree of the senate, which had given it to 
Metellus. "Nor did the senate . . . dare to refuse him any 
thing," while the people themselves felt an ardent desire to 
serve under Marius. "Every one cherished the fancy that he 
should return home laden with spoil ... or attended with some 
similar good fortune. Marius himself, too, had excited them 
in no small degree " by speaking as follows: " They reproach 
me as being mean, and of unpolished manners, because, for- 
sooth, I have but little skill in arranging an entertainment, and 
keep no actor, nor give my cook higher wages than my steward ; 
all which charges I must, indeed, acknowledge to be just. . . . 
But let the nobility, if they please, pursue what is delightful 
and dear to them ; let them devote themselves to . . . revelry 
and feasting, the slaves of gluttony and debauchery ; but let 
them leave the toil and dust of the field . . .to us, to whom 
they are more grateful than banquets." Setting out for Africa, 
he continued the war with success; "his soldiers, kept under 



180 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

mild discipline and enriched with spoil, extolled him to the 
skies." Among his officers, the most famous was Sulla, who 
became, in a short time, " the most expert of the whole array. 
He was, besides, affable to the soldiers, and . . . conversed 
jocosely as well as seriously with the humblest ; ... he was 
their frequent companion at their works, on tlie march and on 
guard." By the aid of Sulla, Jugurtha was captured, and 
Marins returned to Rome, having ended the war. 

STUDY ON 3, a. 

What was the real relation of Numidia to Rome? Why was not 
Rome able to defend Adherbal ? What other source of Roman weak- 
ness appeared on the arrival of Metellus in Africa ? AVhat did the 
Romans seem to be caring for at this time ? What j^roofs that this 
was general in all classes ? Compare this with the state of affairs in 
the Panic period. What two parties were there now in Rome? What 
seemed to distinguish each according to Mai-ius? What assembly 
represented each ? Which was the stronger, and why ? What proof 
have we of its superior strength ? In what did the strength of the 
other consist ? What feeling seemed to be the cause of the displace- 
ment of Metellus by Marias? By what means did Marius gain power 
and influence? By what, Sulla? Name all tlie ways in which the 
Roman power is seen to be weakened and endangered in the events 
of the Jugurthine War. By whom was she thus weakened and 
endangered ? 

h. Extracts from Cicero's Orations in Behalf of the Sicilimis 
against Verres, who had been sent to Sicily as Prcetor. 

" While this man was praetor ... no legal decision for three 
years was given on any other ground but his will ; no property 
was so secure to any man, even if it had descended to him 
from his father and grandfather, but he was deprived of it at 
his command. . . . Roman citizens were tortured and put to 
death like slaves ; the greatest criminals were acquitted in the 
courts of justice through bribery ; . . . the most fortified har- 
bors, the greatest and strongest cities, were laid open to pirates 
nnd robbers ; the sailors and soldiers of the Sicilians, our own 



REPUBLICAN ROME, ROST-PUNIC PERIOD. 181 

allies and friends, died of hunger ; the best built fleets on the 
most important stations were lost and destroyed, to the gi-eat 
disgrace of the Roman people. This same man, . . . in Acha3a 
demanded money from a Sicyouian magistrate. Do not let this 
be considered a crime in Yerres ; others have done the same. 
When he could not give it, he punished him ; a scandalous, but 
not an unheard of act. Listen to the sort of punishment. . . . 
He ordered a fire to be made of green and damp wood in a nar- 
row place. There he left a free man, a noble in his own coun- 
try, an ally and friend of the Roman people, tortured with 
smoke, half dead. . . . But the storming of that most ancient 
and most noble temple of the Samian Juno, how grievous was 
it to the Samians ! how bitter to all Asia ! . . . And when am- 
bassadors had come from Samos into Asia ... to complain of 
this attack on that temple, they received for answer, that com- 
plaints of that sort . . . must be carried to Rome. . . ." 

" Heraclius is ... a Syracusan ; a man among the very first 
for nobility of family, and, before Verres came, . . . one of the 
most wealthy of the Syracusans. . . . An inheritance of at 
least three millions of sesterces came to him, . . . the house 
was full of silver plate exquisitely carved, of abundance of 
embroidered robes, and of most valuable slaves. . . . An action 
is brought in due form against Heraclius. . . . Judges are ap- 
pointed, whomsoever Verres chooses. . . . He commands them 
to condemn Heraclius. ... So they condemn him. What is 
the meaning of this madness ? . . . The first measures which 
are taken are to carry whatever chased plate there was among 
that property to Verres : as for all Corinthian vessels, all 
embroidered robes, no one doubted that they would be taken 
and seized, and carried inevitably to his house. The land 
of the province of Sicily liable to the payment of taxes is 
deserted through the avarice of that man. . . . AYherefore . . . 
O judges, you can easily see that Sicily, that most productive 
and most desirable province, has been lost to the Roman people, 
unless you recover it by your condemnation of that man. 



182 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

For what is Sicily if you take away the cultivation of its laud, 
and if you extinguish the multitude and the very name of the 
cultivators of the soil ? . . . All the provinces are mourning ; all 
the nations that are free are complaining ; every kingdom is 
expostulating with us about our covetousness and our injustice ; 
. . . the Roman people is now no longer able to bear ... the 
mourning, the tears, and the complaints of all foreign nations." 

STUDY ON 3, h. 

What injury did Verres inflict upon the treasury of Rome? Upon 
her power ? Upon her reputation ? Upon her territory ? Upon 
religious faith of men? How did he inflict each of these injuries? 
What proof from Cicero's speech that Verres was not the only case 
of such a provincial governor? What reason do we find in Verres' 
conduct for the eagerness for foreign office among the Romans? 
What do these extracts show to have been a ruling passion with many 
Romans ? In what other case have you seen the same thing ? 

What do the cases of the Jugurthine War and the management of 
Sicily indicate as to the rule of Rome in her provinces ? What faults 
had it? 

c. The Rise of Julius Ccesar. (Abridged from Suetonius.) 

"Julius Caesar, the Divine, . . . lost his father when he was 
but sixteen ; shortly after, he married Cornelia, the daugh- 
ter of a famous Marian leader ; Sulla, being then dictator, 
desired him to divorce her ; but Caesar, resolutely resisting, lost 
his office, his estates, his wife's dowry, and was forced to with- 
draw from Rome." After changing his place of concealment 
nearly every night, although he was suffering from ague, and 
having effected his release by bribing the officers who had 
tracked his footsteps, he at length obtained a pardon through 
the intercession of the vestal virgins, and of . . . his near rela- 
tives. After Sulla's death he returned to Rome, where he 
obtained several successive minor offices from the people. Dur- 
ing this time "he not only embellished the Forum, with the 
adjoining halls, but adorned the Capitol also, with temporary 
piazzas, constructed for the purpose of displaying some part of 



REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 183 

the superabundant collections he had made for the amusement 
of the people. He entertained them [also] with the hunting of 
wild beasts, and with games. . . . Having thus conciliated 
popular favor, he endeavored ... to get Egypt assigned to him 
as a province, by an act of the people. . . . But . . . there 
was so much opposition from the faction of the nobles, that he 
could not carry his point. In order, therefore, to diminish 
their influence ... he restored the trophies erected in honour of 
Cains Marius, which had been demolished by Sulla. . . . Hav- 
ing renounced all hope of obtaining Egypt for his province, he 
stood candidate for the office of chief pontiff, to secure which 
he had recourse to the most profuse briber3'. . . . After he 
was chosen praetor, the conspiracy of Catiline was discovered ; 
and while every other member of the Senate voted for inflicting 
capital punishment on the accomplices in that crime he alone 
proposed that the delinquents should be distributed for safe 
custody among the towns of Itah', their propert}- being confis- 
cated. He stood for this, until some knights standing near 
threatened him with instant death and even thrust at him with 
swords ; whereupon he Avithdrew, and absented himself from 
the Senate "during the remainder of that year." Afterward, 
finding that " preparations were made to obstruct him by force 
of arms" in the discharge of his duties, "he l)etook himself 
privately to his own house, with the resolution of being quiet 
in a time so unfavorable. . . . He likewise pacified the mob, 
which ... in a riotous manner made a voluntary tender of 
their assistance. . . . This happening contrary to expectation, 
the Senate . . . gave him their thanks." 

On becoming consul " he introduced a new regulation : that 
the daily acts both of the Senate and people should be com- 
mitted to writing and published." He also divided certain 
Campanian land " among upwards of 20,000 freemen, who had 
each of them three or more children." During the nine years 
in which he held the government of Gaul, he reduced it all to 
the form of a province. " He was the first of the Romans who, 
crossing the Rhine by a bridge, attacked the Germanic tribes, 



184 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

o . . He also inviided the Britons, a people formerly unknown. 
. . . With money raised from the spoils of the war, he began 
to construct a new forum . . . and promised the people a public 
entertainment of gladiators and a feast . . . such as no one 
before him had ever given. The more to raise their expecta- 
tions on this occasion, although he had agreed with victuallers 
of all denominations for his feast, he made yet farther prepara- 
tions in private houses. . . . Young gladiators he trained up, 
not in the school and by the masters of defense, but in the 
houses of Eoman knights, and even senators, skilled in the use 
of arms, ... He doubled the pay of the legions in perpetuity, 
allowing them, likewise, grain, when it was in plenty, without 
any restriction, and sometimes distributing to every soldier in 
his army a slave and a portion of land. . . . Every person 
about him, and a great portion, likewise, of the Senate, he 
secured b}' loans of money at low interest or none at all ; and 
to all others who came to wait upon him, either by invitation or 
of their own accord, he made liberal presents, not neglecting 
even the freedmen and slaves. . . . He endeavored with equal 
assiduity to engage in his interest princes and provinces in 
every part of the world, presenting some with thousands of 
captives, and sending to others the assistance of troops . . . 
without any authority from either the Senate or people of Rome. 
He . . . embellished with magnificent public buildings the most 
powerful cities, not only of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, but of 
Greece and Asia ; until, all people being now astonished, and 
speculating on the obvious tendency of these proceedings, . . . 
the consul . . . made a motion in the Senate that some person 
should be appointed to succeed Caesar in his province, before 
the term of his command was expired." Caesar, understanding 
that this measure proceeded from Pompey, " wrote a letter to 
the Senate, requesting that they would not deprive him of the 
privilege kindly granted him by the people," or else that Pom- 
pey should resign the command of his army, as well as himself. 
But the Senate declined to interpose, and his enemies consented 
to no compromise. Caesar advanced into Hither Gaul with his 



REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 185 

troops, and, after once more failins^ to arrange matters at Rome, 
crossed the Rubicon, — the southern boundary of his own prov- 
ince, — and •' with tears in his eyes, and his garment rent from 
his bosom, called upon the troops to pledge him their fidelity." 

After becoming perpetual dictator, he gave money and land 
to all the veterans of his infantry ; and to the Roman populace, 
wheat and oil and money. To all this he added a public enter- 
tainment and a distribution of meat, and, after his Spanish 
victory, two public dinners. 

^'. . . His thoughts were now fully employed from day to day 
on a vai'iety of great projects for the embellishment and im- 
provement of the city, as well as for guarding and extendino- 
the bounds of the empire. In the first place, he meditated the 
construction of a temple to Mars, which should exceed in 
grandeur everything of that kind in the world. . . . He also 
projected a most spacious tlieatre . . . ; and also proposed to 
reduce the civil law to a reasonable compass, and out of that 
immense and undigested mass of statutes to extract the best 
and most necessarj' parts into a few books, to make as large a 
collection as possible of works in the Greek and Latin lan- 
guages, for the pubhc use.". . . He intended, likewise, to 
drain the Pontine marshes, to cut a channel for the discharge 
of the waters of the Lake Fucinus, to form a road from the 
upper sea through the ridge of the Apennine to the Tiber, and 
to make a cut through the isthmus of Corinth. . . . But in the 
midst of all his undertakings and projects, he was carried off by 
death." 

******* 

" He was so nice in the care of his person, that he . . . kept 
the hair of his head closely cut, and had his face smoothly 
shaved. . . . His baldness gave him much uneasiness. . . . 
He therefore used to bring forward the hair from the crown of 
his head ; and of all the honors conferred upon him by the 
Senate and the people, there was none which he either accepted 
or used with greater pleasure, than the right of wearing con- 
stantly a laurel crown. ... In regard to wine, he was abste- 



186 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOKY. 

mious. ... In the matter of diet, ... he was so indifferent 
that, when a person in whose liouse he was entertained had 
served him with stale instead of fresh oil, and the rest of the 
company wonld not tonch it, he alone ate very heartily of it, 
that he might not seem to tax the master of the honse with rns- 
ticity or want of attention. . . . Cicero, in recounting to Brutus 
the famous orators, declares, ' that he does not see that Cnesar 
was inferior to any one of them,' and says ' that he had an 
elegant, noble, and magnificent vein of eloquence.' . . . On ;v 
march, he used to go at the head of his troops, sometimes on 
horseback, but oftener on foot, with his head bare in all kinds of 
weather. He would travel post ... at the rate of a hundred miles 
a day ; and if he were stopped ])y floods in the rivers, he swam 
across, or floated on skins inflated with wind. . . . He never 
marched his army by roads which were exposed to ambuscades, 
without having previously examined the nature of the ground by 
his scouts. Nor did he cross over to Britain before he had 
carefully examined in person the navigation, tlie harbors, and 
the most convenient point of landing in tlie island. . . . He was 
never deterred from any enterprise, nor retarded in the prosecu- 
tion of it, by superstition. When a victim which he was 
about to offer in sacrifice made its escape, he did not therefore 
defer his expedition." In his speeches he always addressed his 
men as "fellow-soldiers," and loved them ''to such a degree 
that, when he heard of the defeat of those under Titurius, he 
neither cut his hair nor sliaved his beard until he had revenged 
it. . . . Upon his entering on the civil war, . . . the whole 
army agreed to serve gratis, without either corn or pay, those 
amongst them who were rich charging themselves with the 
maintenance of the poor. No one of them, during the whole 
course of the war, deserted to the enemy ; and many of those 
who were made prisoners, though the}^ were offered their lives 
upon condition of bearing arms against him, refused to accept 
the terms." Pompey, when besieged by the Csesarians, " upon 
seeing a sort of bread made of an herb which they lived upon, 
said, ' I have to do with wild beasts,' and ordered it immediately 



llEPUJiLiCAN HOME, POST-PUNIC PEIUUI). 187 

to be taken away, because, if his troops should see it, their 
spirit might l)e broken by perceiving the endurance and the 
determined resohition of the enemy. . . . When he had placed 
himself at the head of affairs, he advanced some of his faithful 
adherents, though of mean extraction, to the higliest oflices. . . . 

••On the field of Pharsalia he called out to the soldiers 'to 
spare their fellow-citizens,' and afterwards gave permission to 
every man in his army to save an enemy. . . . And, finally, a 
little before his death, he permitted all whom lu; had not before 
pardoned, to return into Italy, and to bear offices both civil and 
militar3\ He even replaced the statues of Sulla and Pompey, 
which had l)een thrown down by the populace. . . . He not only 
obtained exc^essive honors, such as the consulship every year, 
the dictatorship for life, and the censorship, l)ut also the title 
of ICmperor, and the surname of P\\ther of his Country. . . . 
He even suffered some honors to be decreed to him which were 
unbefitting the most exalted of mankind ; such as . . . temples, 
altars, statues among the gods, ... a priest, and a college 
of priests dedicated to himself. ... He admitted into the 
Senate . . . even natives of Gaul, who were barbarians. . . • 
Upon the admission of foreigners into the Senate, a handbill 
was posted up, in these words : ' A good deed ! let no man 
show a new senator the way to the house.' " 

The magistrates, the soldiers, the citizens, and the matronfc 
united in paying the honors of his funeral, and "in this public 
mourning there joined a multitude of foreigners, expressing 
their sorrow according to the fashion of their respective 
countries." The people erected in his honor a column of 
Numidian marble, placing it in the Forum. At this column 
they continued for a long time to offer sacrifices, make vows, 
and decide contro\ersies, in which the}' swore by C«sar. The 
Senate also ranked him among the gods by a formal decree. 

STUDY ON 3, c. 

Make a list of all the qualities of character displayed by Caesar. 
Of these, which gave Csesar power? Which were unfavorable to him? 
What material means did he employ to gain power ? What was the 



188 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

final and decisive means by which he won it ? What does the fact 
that he could gain power by such means sliow of the peojile of Rome ? 
What difference between him and the other party-leaders we have 
seen? In what was he their superior? W^hat party did he represent? 
What classes of people did he favor? What was his attitude towards 
Provincials ? Proofs. What classes of people would you expect to 
favor and support Csesar? Why? AVhat was his object in life? 
In how many ways was Caesar great? What opinion have you of the 
way he gained his power? Of the way he used it? Give reasons for 
each opinion from the facts before you. What was the reason for the 
opposition to Csesar ? Why was he killed? What men may be 
regarded as the predecessors of Caesar in Rome ? Was his death 
a fortune or misfortune to Rome ? Why ? What do we learn of 
religion at Rome from the life of Julius Csesar ? Compare his career 
with that of Pisistratus. 

d. Extracts Illustrative of Thought of the Time. 

'• The custom of reverence for, and discipline and rights of, 
the augurs, and the authority of the college, are still retained 
for the sake of their influence on the minds of the common 
people." But "how pitiful is the nature of a science, which 
pretends that the eccentric motions of birds are full of ominous 
import, and that all manner of things must be done, or left 
undone, as their flights and songs ma}' indicate ! . . . How, 
when, and by whom were such absurd regulations as these 
invented? . . . Such signs may be easily explained by refer- 
ence to the laws of nature." — Cicero. 

"We may be assured . . . that it makes not the least differ- 
ence to a man, when immortal death has ended his mortal life, 
that he was ever born at all." — Lucretius. 

" Alas ! I am ashamed of our scars and our wickedness. . . . 
What have we, a hardened age, avoided? What have we in 
our impiety left unviolated? From what have our youth re- 
strained their hands, out of reverence to the gods? What 
altars have they spared ? " 

******* 

" The palace-like edifices will in a short time leave but a few 
acres for the plough ; . . . then banks of violets, and myrtle- 



REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 189 

groves, and all the tribe of nosegays shall (^iffuse their odors in 
the olive plantations, which were fruitful to their preceding 
master. ... It was not so prescribed by the institutes of 
Romulus, and the unshaven Cato, and ancient custom. Then 
private income was contracted, while that of the community 
was great." 

******* 

"Who can fear the Parthian? Who, the frozen Scythian? 
Who, the progeny that rough Germany produces, while Caesar 
is in safety? . . . Every man puts a period to the day amidst 
his own hills, and weds the vine to the widowed elm.-trees ; 
hence he returns joyful to his wine, and invites thee [Caesar], 
as a deity, to his second course ; thee with many a prayer, thee 
he pursues with wine poured out [in libation] from the cups ; 
and joins thy divinity to that of his household gods." — Horace. 

STUDY ON d. 

Considering Cicero a typical cultured Roman of his age, hov/ did 
men of culture regard the popular faith ? What was apparently the 
attitude of the common people towards it ? What does the extract 
from Lucretius indicate ? Each of the extracts from Horace ? What 
relation between each of the extracts given under d, and the facts 
or characteristics noticed in the later Punic period ? 

GENERAL STUDY ON ROMAN REPUBLIC. 

What single ideal had the Romans during the whole Republican 
period? Give instances from each period. What new ideals were 
added? When? How did the ideal of manners change during this 
time ? Of morals ? Of culture ? What will you select as the most 
typically Roman age of the Republic ? Why ? What as the time of 
its greatest glory? Why? What causes can you give for the fall 
of the Republic ? When did these causes begin to act ? What part 
of the civilization of Rome was Roman? Whence came the rest? 
What general statement can you make as to the way in which Rome 
secured her dominion ? Tn what order did she win it ? In what 
period was religion least prominent? 




I Hispania 
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\OMAN Empire underTRAJAN - about iifc a.d. 

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stmodern, not tlieir Roman, forms. 



192 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORV. 

C. I. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. — AUGUSTUS TO 
OONSTANTINE, 27 B.C. -323 A.D. 

Chief contemporary authorities: Seneca, Suetonius, 
Tacitus, the two Plinys, the New Testament, Dion Cassius, 
Justin Martyr, Tertulliau, Lactantius, the contemporary 
poets (see lists), tlie monuments and inscriptious of the 
empire found throughout its extent. 

Chief modern historians accessible in English : Gibbon, 
Merivale, Duruy. 

QUESTIONS ON MAP. 

What parts of the empire are inost strongly under Roman influ- 
ence ? Greek and Oriental ? In what countries are v,hese three 
influences mixed? By what fact do you judge of influence? What 
countries of modern Europe formed parts of the Roman Empire? 
Compare the location of the cities of modem Europe with the foun- 
dations of the empire. What great cities of Europe do not owe 
their foundation to the empire or to Greeks and Orientals ? Name 
the four cities of the empire which are greatest to-day. What re- 
lation does the Mediterranean hold to the lands of the empire? 
What two facts in regard to the foundation of cities indicate that 
there was much commerce between the various park's of the empire ? 
What provinces of Rome were uncivilized before their conquest ? 
What provinces were civilized? How far are the boundaries of the 
empire natural ? 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 



193 





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194 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 









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STUDY ON THE PAGAN EINII'IRK. 



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196 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



STUDY ON I. 

Note two things whicli are the same throughout the empire, by its 
organization. Into whose hands has the power of the republican mag- 
istrates passed? Of the republican assemblies? Name two things 
which sustain this power. What name will you give to this form of 
government ? What is the apparent object of holding the provinces ? 
What differences between the imperial and the republican armies of 
Rome ? What name is given to such a sort of army as that of the 
emj)ire? With such a constitution on what does Rome depend for 
good or bad government? The inhabitants of the empire gain the 
rights of Romans by entering what class? What people conquered by 
Rome had a religion which would not admit of the adoration of Rome 
and the emperor ? 

2. Itnperial List, 
Less important emperors omitted, but indicated b}'- a *. 



Name and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Works. 


Events and Changes. 


Augustus, 


Of wealthy 


Relationship 


Survey of 


Conquest of Vende- 


27 B.C. - 


plebeian 


to and 


the whole 


lica, Rhaetia, and 


14 A.l). 


family of 


adoption by 


empire ; 


Pannonia ; Romans 




equestrian 


Julius 


building of 


defeated in Germany 




rank 


Cffisar; vic- 


roads, ca- 


by Arminius (Her- 




(kniglit), 


tory in the 


nals, aque- 


mann) ; birth of 




and Italian 


civil war 


ducts, and 


Christ (4 or 5 b.c.).^ 




origin ; 


against 


baths (see 






soldier and 


Mark 


Aniippa, 






general. 


Antony. 


:1!!.Ut 3). 




Tiberius, 


Of old patri- 


Adoption by 


Securing and 


Election of city 


14-37. 


cian Roman 


and relation 


strengthen- 


magistrates trans- 




family; gen- 


to Augus- 


ing of the 


ferred from the 




eral, promi- 


tus ; accept- 


frontier 


popular assemblies 




nent in the 


ed by the 


lines of tlie 


to the Senate; Christ 




conquests of 


Senate and 


empire. 


crucified. 




Augustus. 


the Pras- 






* 




torians. 







^ Modern criticism has discovered an error in the original date of the 
year of our Lord ; hence this apparent contradiction. 



STUDY ON THE L\\GAN EMflllK. 



197 



Name and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Works. 


Events and Clianges. 


Claudius, 


Grand- 


Relationship 


The Claudi- 


Conquest of Southern 


■41-54. 


nephew of 


to Augus- 


an aqueduct 


Britain; admission 




Augustus, 


tus ; choice 


of Rome; 


of Transalpine Gauls 




born at 


of soldiers. 


a new har- 


to the Senate. 




Lyons. 




bor at Ostia. 




Nero, 


I^atin ; 


Bribery of 


A palace for 


Visit of Paul to 


54-68. 


adopted 


the soldiers 


himself, 


Rome ; the burning 




grandson of 


to proclaim 


called the 


of RomebyNero(l); 




Tiberius. 


him empe- 


" Golden 


the accusation and 






ror; in- 


House of 


persecution of the 






trigues of 


Nero." 


Christians for this 






his mother. 




crime. 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


Civil wars for impe- 
rial office. 


Vespasian, 


Sabine, of 


Proclama- 


Baths of 


Conquest of Judaea 


70-79. 


ordinary 


tion by the 


Titus, and 


and the destruction 




family ; 


eastern le- 


the Colis- 


of Jerusalem. 




prominent 


gions at 


eum ; tri- 






in conquest 


Alexandria ; 


umphal arch 






of Britain ; 


victory over 


of Titus for 






commander 


the armies 


Jewish 






in conquest 


of his rival, 


victory. 






of Judaea. 


and accep- 
tance by 
the Senate. 






Titus, 


Son of Ves- 


Birth ; part- 


Finished 


Eruption of Vesu- 


79-81 


pasian; gen- 


nership in 


Coliseum ; 


vius; destruction of 




eral in the 


empire with 


rebuilt at 


Pompeii and Hercu- 




East. 


father; pro- 


own expense 


laneum; persecu- 






clamation 


the build- 


tion of the Chris- 






by legions 


ings de- 


tians. 






and accep- 


stroyed at 






• 


tance by 


Rome by a 








Senate. 


three days' 
fire. 





198 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOP.Y. 




PART OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT 

Built under the Emperor Claudius, in order to bring the pure water of the Latin hills 
to Rome. The water ran through a stone channel supported on top of the arches; its 
size and shape may he seen at the broken end of the aqueduct in the foreground. 



Name and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Works. 


Euents and Changes. 


Domitian, 


Son of 


Birth; pro- 


* * * 


Final conquest of 


81-96. 


Vespasian. 


clamation 
of soldiers 
and accep- 
tance of 
Senate. 




Britain by liis gen- 
eral, Agricola. 


Nerva, 


Of Cretan 


Election of 


Author of 


* * * 


96-98. 


extraction ; 


the Senate ; 


Agrarian 






a senator. 


consent of 
the armies. 


law, by 
which large 
tracts of 
land were 
bought up, 
and allotted 
to poor citi- 
zens ; pro- 





STUDY OX THE I'ACiAX EMPIUK. 



199 





Ijli4 fiM i t \ik^h\ rftiE'ii -« 



^oi^^ ~i -=^=1 




THE COLISEUM. 

Erected for tbe accommodatiou of the Koinaii people when they wished to see the 
combats of gladiators, wild beasts, pugilists, and other entertainments furnished by the 
emperors. The seats surrounded and looked down upon the arena from different heights. 
The building was planned to hold 80,000 spectators. 



Name and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Wort<s. 


■■■- — » 

Events and Changes. 








vided for 










regular 










mainten- 










ance at pub- 










lic cost of 










the poor 










children of 










Italian 










towns. 




Trajan, 


Spaniard ; a 


Adoption by 


Line of de- 


Conquered Dacia for 


98-117. 


prominent 


Nerva ; 


fences from 


the empire perma- 




general in 


popularity 


the Rhino 


nently; persecuted 




the East 


in the ar- 


to the Dan- 


the Christians in 



200 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



PJawe and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Works. 


Events and Changes. 




and on the 


mies, and 


ube ; aque- 


the East. 




Rhine. 


acceptance 
by tlie 
Senate. 


ducts in 
provinces; 
bridges over 
Danube and 
other great 
rivers; a 
triumphal 
column in 
Rome ; 
roads and 
fortresses 
in Dacia ; 
triumphal 
arches to 
celebrate 
repair of 
harbors and 
roads. 




Hadrian, 


Of Italian 


Related to 


Built a for- 


Reformed the disci- 


117-138. 


family long 


his guard- 


tified ram- 


pline of the army ; 




settled in 


ian, Trajan, 


part (Picts' 


reduced the law ol 




Spain ; 


by birth 


wall) across 


Rome and Italy to n 




general. 


and mar- 


Britain ; 


uniform and perma- 






riage; com- 


built a mau- 


nent standard ; made 






mander of 


soleum for 


the Council of rotate 






Syrian 


himself 


a high court of 






army. 


(noAv Castle 
of San 
Angelo), 
and a fa- 
mous villa ; 
built bridges 
and tem- 
ples ; re- 
stored 
drainage 
of Rome. 


justice. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN E^rPTRE. 



201 




TRAJAN AND THE LICTORS. 
(Marble relief from Trajan's Forum.) 



\ame and 
Date. 


Biti:h and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Worf<s. 


Events and Changes 


Antoninus 


Of Gallic 


Adoption by 


Wall built 


None ; peace and 


Pius, 


origin ; of 


Hadrian ; 


from Forth 


toleration. 


138-161. 


high rank 


acceptance 


to Clyde ; 






and office. 


by Senate. 


founded a 
charity for 
orphan 
girls. 





202 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY 




MOSAIC PROM THE BATHS OF CARAGALLA, REPRESENTING FAMOUS GLADIATORS. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIKK. 



203 



Name and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance, 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Works. 


Events and Changes. 


.Mahcus 


Nephew of 


A(l()i)ti()ii by 


Triuniphnl 


Reduction of Parllii:i 


Al KK- 


Antoninus ; 


Antoninus 


cokunn to 


and defeat of (ier- 


i.n s, K'.l 


of Si)anisli 


and accep- 


celebrate 


manic barbarians on 


-180. 


origin ; Ko- 


tance by 


his German 


northern frontier. 




man birth. 


the Senate. 


victories ; 
autlior of 
philosophi- 
cal (Stoic) 
meditations. 




* * « 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * * 


Septiniius 


African, 


Proclama- 


.V triumphal 


Keplaced the Prae- 


Severus, 


from near 


tion by le- 


arch at 


torian guards by 


11)3-211. 


Carthage ; 


gions of 


Pome. 


soldiers from the 




prominent 


Pannonia, 




frontiers ; persecu- 




and excel- 


who con- 




tion of the Chris- 




lent com- 


quered the 




tians. 




mander. 


armies of 
his rival 
candidates ; 
acceptance 
by Senate. 






Caracalla, 


Son of 


Appoint- 


Baths of 


Made every free 


211-217. 


Septimius 


ment of his 


Caracalla. 


inhabitant of the 




Severus, 


father and 




empire a Roman 




born in 


murder of 




citizen; massacre of 




Gaul. 


his brother, 
also ap- 
pointed by 
the father; 
declaration 
by Praetor- 
ians ; ac- 
ceptance by 
the Senate. 




Alexandrians on 
account of their 
allusions to his 
fratricide. 


* ^ * 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


Constant civil war 
between rival im- 
perial candidates 
aud their supporting 
armies. 



204 



STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name and 
Date. 



Birth and 
Circumstance, 



Decius, Roman sen- 
249-251. atorand 
general ; 
Pannoniji 



Claudius 
II., 268^ 
270. 



Aiirelian, 



From Illyri- 
cum ; low 
birth; sol- 
dier ; gene- 
ral. 

Peasant of 
lUyria ; vie 
torious 
general of 
Claudius. 



Source of 
Imperial Power. 



Declared by 
the McEsian 
army in re- 
volt against 
reigning 
emperor. 



Famous Works. 



Choice of 
predecessor: 
acceptance 
of army. 

Proclama- 
tion by the 
legions and 
acceptance 
by the 
Senate. 



New defen- 
sive wall for 
Rome. 



Events and Changes. 



Great defeat by the 
Goths, who retreated 
on being promised 
an annual sum of 
money ; general per- 
secution of 
Christians. 

Wars with Persians 
and with Goths ; 
civil wars between 
various (at one time 
thirty) imperial can- 
didates and their 
armies ; persecution 
of Christians ; 
empire ravaged by 
plague.i 

Great victories over 
the Goths ; a picked 
body of Goths placed 
in the Roman army. 

Ended the Gothic 
war; drove back the 
Germans from Italy ; 
conquered Zenobia, 
empress of Syria ; 
gave Goths a per- 
manent settlement 
in Dacia beyond the 
Danube ; admitted 
Goths to imperial 
body-guard; perse- 
cution of Christians. 



1 Gibbon calculates that nearly half the inhabitants of the empire per- 
ished at this time by war, famine, a)id pestilence. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 



205 



Name and 
Date. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Source of 
Imperial Power. 


Famous Worlis. 


Events and Changes. 


* * * 


* * * 


* * « 


* * * 


* * * * 


Diocle- 


Son of Dal- 


Proclama- 


Baths in 


Divided the empire ^ 


tian, 


matian 


tion by tlie 


Rome; a 


between two rulers 


284-305, 


freedman or 


legions of 


splendid 


and two capitals 




serf; com- 


the East ; 


and exten- 


(Nicaea and 




mander of 


victory over 


sive palace 


Milan). Each ruler 


and 


the former 


the army of 


for himself 


(Augustus) had an 




emperor's 


his rival. 


at Spalatro 


assistant (Caesar), 




body-guard. 




in Dalmatia. 


wore a diadem, and 
required his subjects 
to approach him 
prostrate, adoring 
his divinity; ap- 
pointed consuls with- 
out consent of Sen- 
ate ; general perse- 
cution of Christians ; 
subdued rebellion in 
Egypt. 


Maximian, 


lilyrian 


Choice of 


Circus, thea- 


Subdued, by his 


286-305. 


peasant ; 


Diocletian 


tre, baths. 


assistant Cajsar, the 




soldier ; 


and the 


etc., at 


revolting provinces 




general. 


army. 


Milan. 


of the west. 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


* * * * 



STUDY ON 2. 

Among the events and changes given in the imperial list, select 
those which were constitutional. What was the tendency of these 
changes? In which century were these changes most radical? In 
whom did they culminate ? What effect had they upon the equality 
of the inhabitants of the empire ? What classes gained in equality ? 
Under what forms did the empire exist up to the time of Diocletian ? 
How. will you describe the torm of government established by him ? 
What was the final basis of the imperial power? How proved to be 
so from these lists ? What remark can you make of the hereditary 

1 The Western division comprised Italy, Gaul, Britain, Spain, Africa ; 
the Eastern, Greece, Macedonia, Egypt, Asia Minor. (See map.) 



206 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



nature of the imperial office ? Illustrate. Was such a change for the 
worse or better ? Why ? What part of the empire was represented 
by the emperors as a whole? Prove it. How were the provinces 
better oft under the emperors than under the republic ? What strikes 
you as the great fault of the constitution ? What light does the 
origin of the emperors throw on the equality of men in the empire? of 
equality in the earlier as compared with the later years of the period ? 

3. List of Great Men of the Pagan Eniph'ey exclusive 
of E7nj}erors, 

a. Men of the Auyustan Age and the First Centurfj. (Men of 
the Augustan Age marked *.) 



Name. 



Birth and Circumstances. 



Cause of Fame. 



Language 
used. 



*Agrippa. 



*Diodorus. 



*Dionysius. 



Epictetus. 



*Horace. 



Josephus. 



Of obscure birth ; Ko- 
man generab and 
associated with Au- 
gustus in magistracy 
of Rome. 



Siciban Greek ; 
travelled in aU parts 
of the empire to get 
material for his his- 
tory ; lived at Rome. 

Asiatic Greek ; lived at 
Rome. 

A Phrygian slave, 
owned by a freednian 
of Nero in Rome. 

Son of an Apulian 
freednian. 



Jew of most ilbistrious 
lineage. 



Projected the Panthe- 
on ; made a survey 
and map of whole 
empire for Augustus ; 
made fine military 
roads in Gaul and 
aqueduct of Nimes. 

Author of general liis- 
tory of the civilized 
workl up to his own 
time. 

Author of History of 
Rome ; literary critic 
and rhetorician. 

Teacher of the Stoic 
philosophy. 

Author of poems, satir- 
izing human nature 
and contemporary 
manners. 

Historian of Judasa. 



Latin, 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Greek. 



Latin. 



Greek. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIKE. 



207 







i '!l ii! 



nWi'j:. 



^ !il i^h. 



F \ .^^^ 









^'if^ 



'■^^ 






THE PANTHEON OP AGRIPPA. 



The two little bell-topped towers are an addition of modern times. The rest is according 
to the Roman plan. 



Name. 


Birth and Oircumstances. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language 
used. 


*Livv. 


Paduan by birth and 


Autlior of a History of 


Latin. 




education ; of consu- 


Rome from its foun- 






lar rank. 


dation. 




Lucan. 


Spaniard of Italian 


Author of poem on 


Latin, 




origin and equestrian 


civil wars of Pompey 






rank. 


and Caesar. 




Martial. 


Native Spaniard. 


AYriter of epigrams, or 
short and pithy poems, 
generally satirical, 
upon contemporary 
life and manners. 


Latin. 



208 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 



*Maecenas. 

*Ovid. 
Quintilian. 
Pliny the Elder, 

Seneca. 
* Virgil. 

*Vitruvius. 



Birth and Circumstances. 



Roman knight. 



Italian of equestrian 

rank. 
Spaniard of otRcial 

rank. 
From Cisalpine Gaul, 

and of noble family ; 

magistrate and inspec- 
tor of finances. 
Spaniard by birth and 

education ; knight and 

senator. 
Mantuan freeholder, 

educated at Cremona 

and Milan. 

Ot Verona; inspector 
of public buildings for 
Augustus. 



Cause of Fame. 



Language 
used. 



Friend and first adviser 
or minister of Augus- 
tus ; patron of literary 
men, notably Horace 
and Virgil. 

Poet, using Greek ma- 
terials and forms. 

Writer on rhetoric and 
oratory ; lawyer. 

Writer on natural sci- 
ence, and student. 



Philosophical writer of 
Stoic school. 

Author of the "^neid," 
an epic modelled after 
Homer, descriptive of 
the founding of Rome 

Architect, and author 
of work on architec- 
ture. 



h. Men of Second Century. 



Apuleius. 


African of magisterial 


Author of " Golden 


Latin 




rank. 


Ass," a story founded 
on Greek originals, 
but satirizing contem- 
porary manners. 




Arrian. 


Asiatic Greek of poor 


Biographies of Alexan- 


Greel 




but honorable birth ; 


der and his succes- 






high Roman magis- 


sors ; wrote on geo- 






trate. 


graphy and the mili- 
tary art- 





STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE 



209 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language 
used. 


(ialen. 


Son of a wealthy archi- 


Author of medical 


Greek. 




tect at Pergamos ; 


works ; physician of 






studied at Alexandria; 


Marcus Aurelius. 






lived at Pome. 






Justin Martyr. 


Greek of Samaria. 


Apologist 1 and Chris- 
tian philosopher and 
martyr, under Marcus 
Aurelius. 


Greek. 


Juvenal . 


Son of Italian freed- 


Author of poems satiri- 


Latin. 




man ; Eoman magis- 


zing contemporary 






trate. 


life. 




Lucian. 


Of a poor Syrian 


Author of satirical dia- 


Greek. 




family. 


logue dealing with 
contemporary thought, 
life, knowledge, and 
faith. 




Plutarch. 


Boeotian Greek of hon- 


Biographer of famous 


Greek. 




orable family. 


Greeks and Romans. 




Ptolemy. 


Egyptian, studying and 


Astronomer, mathema- 


Greek. 




observing at Alexan- 


tician, and geo- 






dria. 


grapher; taught that 
the earth is round and 
the centre about 
which the heavens 
turn ; author of the 
" Almagest," a work 
on astronomy, con- 
taining important lists 
of stars. 


1 


Pausanias. 


Lydian. 


Traveller; geographi- 
cal writer. 


Greek. 


Pliny the 


Of Cisalpine Gaul ; 


Lawyer ; writer of 


Latin. 


Younger. 


Roman magistrate. 


letters descriptive of 

contemporary 

manners. 





1 Apologist : one who made a literary defence of Christianity, addressed 
to the pagan world. 



210 



STUDIES IN gp:neral history. 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language 
used. 


Suetonius. 


Son of a soldier. 


Biographer of the 
twelve Cajsars (Julius 
to Domitian). 


Latin. 


Tacitus. 


Italian ; Roman magis- 


Historian of nearly 


Latin. 


• 


trate and patrician. 


contemporary Roman 
events ; author of the 
" Germania," a de- 
scription of the 
Germans. 





During this century tlie hooks of the New Testament received their 
canonical form in Greek. 



c. 3fen of Third Century. 



Cassius, Dion. 


Of Asia Minor ; Roman 


Author of a history of 


Greek. 




magistrate; senator 


Rome. 






and governor. 






Clement, St. 


Of Alexandria ; head 


Author of works on 


Greek. 




of the Christian 


Christian doctrine and 






school there. 


practice. 




Cyprian, St. 


Born at Carthage ; of a 


Sold his goods for the 


Latin. 




distinguished family ; 


sake of the poor; 






well educated in phil- 


lived austerely and 






osophy and literature ; 


alone ; regarded as 






Bishop of Carthage. 


father of the poor; 
wrote moral, religious, 
and theological works 
and letters. 




Lactantius. 


African (?); studied 


Famous orator and 


Latin 




near Carthage. 


apologist for the 
Christians; poet; 
author of philosophic 
and religious writings 
and letters. 





STUDY ON THE TAG AN EMPIRE. 



211 



Name. 


Birth and Cifcumstances. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language 
used. 


( )rigen 


Of Alexandria; finely 


Teacher and preacher 


Greek. 




educated in literature, 


at Alexandria ; of 






philosophy, theology. 


ascetic life; had but 
one cloak, slept on 
the ground, ate as 
little as possible, 
wrote commentaries 
and theological 
works of philosophi- 
cal cliaracter. 




Porpliyry. 


Syrio-Phoenician ; 


Author of philosophi- 


Greek. 




studied at Alexandria 


cal and critical works ; 




' 


and Kome. 


opposed Christian 
doctrine; Platonist. 




rertulliaii. 


Carthage; son of a 


Author of arguments 


Latin. 




soldier. 


against pagan belief 
and practice ; of 
moral and theological 
writings ; Montanist ; 
taught severest 
asceticism. 




Llpian. 


Of Tyre; Roman 


Author of works on 


Latin. 




magistrate. 


law. 





STUDY ON 3. 

What general remark can you make in regard to the origin and 
3ircumstances of the great men of the pagan empire ? Compare with 
republican Rome. What is indicated by this difference? What does 
this list indicate in regard to the civilization of the provinces ? From 
whom did the western provinces (Gaul, Spain, Africa) take their civili- 
zation? From whom the eastern? Prove it. What unity does this 
same fact prove existed in the empire? With what division? What 
province came first into prominence ? What reason can you think of 
for this ? What kind of work seems to have been the most popular at 
Rome ? What was original t(3 the Romans ? What was the strongest 
intellectual influence felt by the Romans? Instances. — (Take one 



2l^ STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

from the picture of the Pantheon.) Compare the three centm-ies in 
point of intellectual activity. To what class of Komans is this sort 
of activit}^ almost entirely confined in the third century? "W^hat 
inference can you draw from this as to the influence and culture of 
this class ? 

GENERAL STUDY ON 2 AND 3. 

Which was the most excellent century of imperial rule? Which the 
worst? Illustrate by number of emperors, by literature, by events and 
changes, by imperial works, by comparison of pictures on p. 201 and 
p. 202. What kind of things do the imperial works show the Romans 
to have cared for? What sort of ability is indicated by these works? 
What new construction do you find employed in the Pantheon which 
you have not seen used by any other people ? If Trajan and the 
Lictors (p. 201) and the Gladiators (p. 202) be typical lioman work, 
what difference do you note between Greek and Roman material in art ? 

AVhat outside danger threatened Rome more and more? What 
indication of this danger in the works of the emperors ? What great 
change in the population and the army began to take place in the 
third century? What facts show this change? Give two proofs of 
the extensive spread of Christianity. 

4. Extracts Jlliistrative of Life and Thought of the 
Pagan Empire. 

a. The Vision and Prophecy of Augustus. (From VirgiPf* 

^neid) } 

" This, this is the man whom you have often heard promiseu 
to you, Augustus Csesar, the offspring of a god ; who once 
more shall establish the golden age . . . and shall extend his 
empire . . . beyond the sun's annual course, where Atlas, sup- 
porting heaven on his shoulders, turns the axle studded with 
flaming stars." Thus Virgil elsewhere speaks of Augustus : 
"A god hath vouchsafed us this tranquillity ; for to me he shall 
always be a god ; a tender lamb from our folds shall often stain 
his altar [with his blood]." 

1 According to favorite Roman legend, Rome was founded by ^Eneas, 
one of the Trojan heroes who fled from the ruin of Troy. His adventures 
form the subject of the "^Eneid." In the course of them he is foretold th« 
future greatness of Rome, and sees a vision of its heroes. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 218 

h. From Epictetus. 

" Ctiesar has procured us a profound peace ; there are neither 
wars, nor battles, nor great robberies, nor piracies ; but we maj- 
travel at all hours, and sail from east to west." (^Under Nero.) 

'. From Tacitus. A Letter of Tiberius to the Senate in Answer 
to a Request for Sumptuary Laws. 

" But what is it that I am first to prohibit? what excess re- 
trench to the ancient standard ? Am I to begin with that of 
our country seats, spacious without bounds ; and with the num- 
ber of domestics, from various countries? or with the quantity 
of silver and gold? or with the pictures, and statues of brass, 
the wonders of art? or with vestments, promiscuously worn by 
men and women ? . . . It is wonderful that nobody lays before 
the Senate . . . that the lives of the Roman people are daily 
exposed to the mercy of uncertain seas and tempests ; were it 
not for our supplies from the provinces — supplies by which the 
masters, and their slaves, and their estates are maintained — 
would our groves, forsooth, and villas maintain us?" 

The First Persecution of the Christians. 

The name of Nero has become the synonym for all that is 
vile and cruel. He poisoned his rival, the son of the former 
emperor ; he caused his mother and his first wife to be assassi- 
nated ; his second wife died from the effects of a kick ; his 
companions were the vilest men of Rome, in whose company he 
played the gladiator and the robber ; it was the current belief of 
antiquit}' that he himself set fire to Rome. " To suppress this 
rumor," says Tacitus, "he falsely charged with the guilt, and 
punished with the most exquisite tortures, the persons com- 
monly called Christians. . . . And in their deaths they were 
also made the subjects of sport, for they were covered with the 
hides of wild beasts and worried to death by dogs, or nailed to 
crosses, or set fire to, and when day declined, burned to serve 
for nocturnal lights. Nero ofl^ered his own gardens for that 
spectacle, and exhibited a Circensian game, indiscriminately 



214 STUDIES IK GENKIIAL HISTOKV. 

iningling with the common people in the habit of a charioteer, 
or else standing in his chariot." 

How Otlio became Enij^eror. 

The last of the Cassar family died in Nero, and the legions 
of Spain proclaimed their general, Galba, emperor ; on arriving 
at Rome he addressed the praetorian gnards, but " added no 
flattery nor hopes of a donation." Meanwhile Otho, a l^oon 
companion of Nero, "-had been in the habit of courting the 
affections of tlie army. . . . On their march, in the lines, at 
their quarters, he made it his business to converse freely with 
all, . . . and with his interest and his purse was ready to be 
their friend. . . . With malignant insinuation glancing at 
G-alba, he omitted nothing that could fill the vulgar mind with 
discontent. . . . The loss of the donative, so often promised 
and still withheld, was the topic enforced to inflame the minds 
of the common men. . . . The vile and profligate were so 
ready for mutiny and the upright to connive, that, on the 
day after the Ides of Januarv, they formed a resolution to take 
Otho under their care . . . and . . .proclaim him emperor. . . . 
The whole populace, in the meantime, with a crowd of slaves 
intermixed, crowded the palace, demanding, with discordant 
cries, vengeance on the head of Otho and his partisans, as 
though they were clamoring in the circus or amphitheater for 
some spectacle. . . . Meanwhile, the praetorian guards with 
one voice declared for Otho. They ranged themselves in a 
body round his person, and . . . the whole camp resounded with 
shouts and tumults and mutual exhortations. . . . They rec- 
ommended the i)rince of their own choice to the aflfections of 
the men. and the men, in their turn, to the favor of the prince. 
Otho, on his part, omitted nothing ; he paid his court to the 
rabble with his hands outstretched, scattering kisses in pro- 
fusion, and, in order to he emperor, crouching like a slave. . . . 

"Galba, meanwhile, was borne in various directions according 
as the waving multitude impelled him. The temples, and great 
halls around the forum, were filled with crowds of sorrowing 
spectators. A deep and sullen silence prevailed ; the very 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN KMPIItE. 2l5 

rabble w.is hushed ; amazement sat on every face. . . . Otho, 
however, received intelUgence that the popiihice had recourse t(i 
arms, and thereupon ordered his troops to push forward with 
rapidity. . . . Tlie}' entered the city, they dispersed the 
common people, trampled the Senate under foot ; with swords 
drawn, and horses at full speed, they burst into the forum. . . 
The people fled in consternation ; such as liesitated were 
attacked sword in hand.'' Galba was slain, and "another 
Senate and another people seemed now to l)e in possession of 
Rome. All pressed forward to the camp. Every man en- 
deavored to distance those near him, and strive with those 
before him. They reviled Galba, and applauded the judgment 
of the soldiers. The\' kissed the hands of Otho, and in propor- 
tion to their want of sincerity-, . . . multiplied their compli- 
ments. . . . The fathers assembled without dela}'. The tribu- 
nitian power, the name of Augustus, and all imperial honors 
enjoyed by former princes, were by their decree granted to 
Otho." , 

From the Dialogue on Oratory. 

"What is our present practice? the infant is committed to 
some wretched creature in the shape of a Greek chambermaid, 
assisted in her task by a slave or two, generally the very worst 
in the whole household, and unfit for the discharge of any 
office of trust. From the fables, and worse than idle tales of 
these people, the mind of the child receives its first coloring. 
There is not a single person in the whole household w^ho troubles 
himself in the slightest degree about what he says or does 
before his youthful master. ... In these days the patronage 
of actors, the passion for horses and gladiators . . . seems im- 
pressed, if I may say so, upon the very infants ; and when once 
the mind has been beset ... by things like these, what room is 
left for honorable pursuits ; what else is the subject of conver- 
sation in the domestic circle? If we enter our schools, what 
else do we hear our boys talking about? Nay, this is the most 
usual topic with which even the teachers amuse their pupils." 
Says Quintilian on this same subject: "Before the child can 



216 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

talk, he understands all about the merits of the cook ; he calls 
for delicacies. We educate their palates before we teach them 
how to speak." 

d. From the Letters of the Younger Pliny. 

" I had the great pleasure of hearing from our common 
friends that you take your leisure and lay it out as a man of 
youi- good sense ought ; living down in a charming part of the 
country, and varying your amusements, — sometimes driving, 
sometimes going out for a sail, holding frequent learned discus- 
sions and conferences, reading a good deal, and, in a word, 
daily increasing that fund of knowledge you already possess. 
This is to grow old in a way worthy of one who has discharged 
the highest offices both civil and military, and who gave himself 
up entirely to the service of the state while it became him to 

do so." 

* ^ * * * * * 

"I had taken refuge in my villa at Tuscum, in hopes of passmg 
my time here, at least, in my own way ; but that is a privilege, 
I find, I am not to enjoy even here ; so greatly am I interrupted 
with the troublesome complaints and petitions of my tenants, 
whose accounts I look over with more reluctance than I do my 
own ; for really it is with great unwillingness I examine even 
these. . . . Meanwhile, my domestic affairs are neglected as 
much as if I were away." 

******* 

"The getting in of my vintage . . . particularly employs me at 
present, if getting it in means gatliering a grape now and then. 
visiting the winepress, tasting the must in the vat, and saunter- 
ing up to my servants, who, being all engaged out of doors, 
have wholly abandoned me to ni}' readers and my secretaries." 

Under Trajan, Pliny was made governor of the province of 
Bithynia ; and the following extracts are from Phny's corre- 
spondence with the emperor : — 

" The Prusenses, Sir, having an ancient bath, which lies in a 
ruinous state, desire your leave to repair it ; but, upon exami- 
nation, I am of opinion it ought to be rebuilt." 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 217 

Trajan to Pliny. 

" If the erecting a public bath will not be too great a charge 
upon the Prusenses, we may compl}^ with their request." 

Pliny to Trajan. 

" Having been petitioned by some persons to grant them the 
liberty ... of removing the relics of their deceased relations, 
upon the suggestion that either their monuments were decayed 
by age, or ruined by the inundations of the river, ... I thought 
proper, Sir, ... to consult you." 

Trajan to Pliny. 

" It will be a hardship upon the provincials to oblige them to 
address themselves to ' Rome,' whenever they may have just 
reasons for removing the ashes of their ancestors. In this case, 
therefore, it will be better you should . . . grant or deny them 
this liberty as you shall see reasonable." 

While governor, certain persons were brought to trial before 
him on the charge of being Christians, of whom he writes as 
follows: " They repeated after me an invocation to the gods, 
and offered religious rites with wine and incense before your 
statue . . . and even reviled the name of Christ ; whereas there 
is no forcing, it is said, those who are really Christians into 
an}' of these compliances ; I thought it proper, therefore, to 
discharge them." 

" . . .It appears to be a matter highly deserving your con- 
sideration, more especially as great numbers must be involved 
in the danger of these prosecutions, which have already ex- 
tended, and are still likely to extend, to persons of all ranks 
and ages, and even of both sexes. In fact, this contagious 
superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread its 
infection among the neighboring villages and country." 

8. From the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. 

"... Suppose that men kill thee, curse thee. ... If a man 
should stand by a pure spring and curse it, the spring never 
ceases sending up wholesome water ; and if he should cast clay 



218 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

into it, or filth, it will speedily disperse them, and wash them 
out, and will not be at all polluted. . . . What, then, is that 
about which we ought to employ our serious pains ? This one 
thing : just thoughts and social acts ; and words which never 
lie ; and a temper which accepts gladly all that happens. . . . 
Everything harmonizes with me which is harmonious to thee, 
O Universe. Nothing is too early nor too late for me, which 
is in due time for thee. Everything is fruit to me, which thy 
seasons bring, O Nature ; from thee are all things ; in thee are 
all things ; to thee all things return. ..." 

STUDY ON 4. 

Be ready to prove by quotations your answers to the following ques- 
tions: — In what way were the emperors regarded? What was con- 
sidered the glory and value of the empire? Of the Romans? — Why 
did Tiberius speak of " uncertain seas and tempests " as a source of 
danger to Rome? Some one has said, " I hold all Rome guilty of this 
Nero " ; explain it. What qualities displayed by the Romans — 
citizens, senators and soldiers — in the elevation of Otho? What 
class ruled the empire? What relation between the education and the 
life of Romans ? How was labor regarded ? What reason was there 
for this in the constitution of society? What proof in Pliny's letters 
of the great centralization of power in the imperial hands ? How did 
the imperial compare with the republican regard for the provinces ? 
AVhat reason for this difference ? What testimony in these letters as 
to the spread of Christianity ? The character of Christians ? What 
resemblances between the reflections given from Marcus Aurelius and 
Christian teaching ? 

Make a list of all the good things about the Roman Empire. Make 
a list of all the evils that you have found in it. What ideals exist in 
the Pagan Empire? 

f. From the Reported WorcU of Christ. 

"•But I say unto you, love your enemies, bless them that 
curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them 
which despitefull}' use 3'ou, and persecute you ; that ye may be 
the children of your Father which is in heaven : for he maketh 
his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on 
the just and on the unjust." 



STUDY ON THP: PAGAN EMPIRE. 219 

******* 
"Take no thought, saying, AMiat shall we eat? or, what 
shall we drink? or, wherewithal shall we be clothed? . . . l^nt 
seek ye first the kingdom of* God, and his righteousness, and all 
these things shall be added unto you. . . . Come unto me, all 
ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. 
Take my yoke u[)on you, and learn of me : for I am meek and 
lowly in heart ; and ye shall (ind rest unto your souls. For my 
yoke is easy, and my burden is light." 

******* 
"Then said Jesus unto his disciples. If any man will come 
after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and 
follow me. For what is a man profited, if he gain the whole 
world, and lose his own soul? . . . Suffer little children, and 
forbid them not, to come unto me ; for of such is the kingdom 
of heaven. . . . But be not ye called I^ibbi : for one is j'our 
Master, even Christ; and all ye are brethren. And call no 
man your father upon the earth : for one is your Father which 
is in heaven. Neither be ye called masters : for one is your 
Master, even Christ." 

******* 
"Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye 
pay tithe of mint, and anise, and cumin, and have omitted the 
weightier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith : these 
ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone. . . < 
Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with 
all thy soul, and with all thy strength, and with all thy mind ; 
and thy neighbor as thyself. . . . When thou makest a feast, 
call the poor, the maimed, the lame, the blind ; and thou shalt 
be blessed." 

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 

" God is a spirit: and they that worship him, must worship 
liim in spirit and in truth." 

(/. From the Ejyistles of the Earhj Christians. 

"To us there is l)ut one God, the Father, of whom are all 
things, and we in him. . . . There is neither Jew nor Greek, 



220 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female ; 
for ye are all one in Christ Jesus. . . . We beseech you, breth- 
ren, , . , that ye study to be quiet, and to do your own business, 
and to work with your hands, as we commanded 3^ou ; that ye 
may walk honestly. . . . This we commanded you, that if any 
would not work, neither should he eat. ... In like manner 
also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with 
shame-facedness and sobriety ; not with l)roidered hair, or gold, 
or pearls, or costl}' array. . . . They that will be rich, fall into 
temptation . . . for the love of money is the root of all evil : 
charge them that are rich in this world . . . that they do good, 

that they be rich in good works, ready to distribute." 

^ ***** * 

"But speak thou the things which become sound doctrine; 
that the aged men be sober, grave, temperate, sound in faith, 
in charity, in patience ; the aged women likewise, that they be 
in behaviour as becometh holiness ; not false accusers, not 
given to much wine, teachers of good things ; tliat they may 
teach the young women to be sober, to love their husbands, to 
love their children ; to be discreet, chaste, keepers at home . . . 
that the word of God be not blasphemed. Young men likewise 
exhort to be sober-minded, in all things shewing thyself a 
pattern of good works. . . . Exhort servants to be obedient 
unto their own masters, and to please them well in all things ; 
not answering again ; not purloining, but shewing all good 
fidelity ; that they may adorn the doctrine of God, our Saviour, 
in all things. . . . Put them in mind to be subject to princi- 
palities and powers, to obey magistrates, to be ready to every 
good work." 

Note on Heresies, — From Phrygia, in the second ceirtury, came 
the doctrine of Montanus, who thought himself the dwelling of the 
Holy Ghost, and who taught that the end of the world was near, and 
that bodily suffering would purify the soul [asceticism']. In Alexan- 
dria and Egypt were many Gnostics who denied the humanity of 
Christ. In the third century some denied his divinity. Then, too, 
came the Manichceans from Persia, teaching the existence of two gods, 
pne good, one evil. They condemned marriage, and considered that 



I 



STUDY ON THE PACJAN EMPIRE. 221 

the body was so evil tliat to continue the human species was but to 
prolong the reign of evil. There was much discussion in this century 
about baptism, about the marriage of the clergy, their duties and 
accountability. Just at the close of the period arose the famous Arian 
controversy between Arius, deacon of Alexandria, who maintained 
that Christ was like God and had been created by him, and Atlia- 
nasius, bishop of Alexandria, who taught that Christ was himself very 
God. 

STUDY ON /, (/, AND NOTE. 

What in Roman life was attacked by the Christian teachings? 
What in Roman ideas? What in organization? AVhat virtues did 
they insist upon? Why was Christianity dangerous to Rome? In 
what part of the empire did all the heresies arise ? Why in that part 
rather than another? What sort of activity do they indicate in the 
early church ? What danger did they threaten her with ? What was 
the bond of luiion among Christians? What previous bonds of union 
did the Christians abolish or ignore by their teachings? What was 
their ideal ? 

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON ROMAN HISTORY. 

Of what value was the Roman dominion to the countries governed ? 
What real differences existed between the divisions of the empire 
made by Diocletian? To what old empire did. the eastern division 
roughly correspond? Of what advantage was the empire to the spread 
of Christianity ? What is the application of the motto prefixed to the 
studies in Roman history? To what j^art of the history does it most 
thoroughly ap]:»ly ? What countries could Rome make after her own 
pattern, Roman ? What countries were uninfluenced, though con- 
quered by her? What proof can you give of this? What seems to 
you the best period of Roman history ? What its worst ? What was 
the most cliaracteristic period? What was the genius of Rome? How 
shown? When and how did this genius first appear? When and how 
did her faults first appear ? 



222 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS BEFORE 476. 

" We liewed with (jur swords." — Lodbrokak. 

3 

Original and contemporary authorities: Tacitus, Caesar, 
Jornandes, and Amniianus ; Teutonic songs and legends 
embodied in later forms, notably, the Eddas, the Saga of the 
Burnt Njal, the Nibelungen Lied, Beowulf; actual village- 
communities, like those of Russia and the East, and traces 
of these all through modern Europe throw much side-light 
on this history. 

Modern authorities in English: Stubbs' Constitutional 
History of England, true for all the West ; Grant Allen's 
Early Britain, and Green's History of the English People. 



1. Note on Teutonic Land-Tenure. — The German territory 
belonging to any tribe was divided into cantons ; in each canton was 
a certain number of marks ; a mark was a district of country held by 
"kindred freemen," who grouped their dwelhngs in a village sur- 
rounded by wood and waste land. Within the village, each man 
owned his own homestead and a bit of vacant land around it. Once 
a year the land to be cultivated was divided among the villagers by 
common consent in a general meeting of the mark-men [" Mark- 
moot "] or by the decision of a chief or inagistrate. Each householder 
raised from the lot assigned him the crops decided upon by the com- 
munity. One man had as good a right as another to cut wood and let 
his pigs run in the forest, or send his cattle into the meadow-lands. 
The Mark-moot also decided if a new man might come among them to 
own land, or if an old settler might build apart from the village, and 
in general, on purely local affairs. AVithin the family the rnle was 
})atriarchal. 

2. Extracts front the ''^ Gertnany^^ of Tacitus, 

" The people of Germany appear to me indigenous, and free 
from intermixture with foreigners. ... In their ancient songs, 
which are the only records or annals, they celebrate the god 



STUDY ON THE TEUTONIC BAKBAIUANS. 223 

Tuisto, sprung from the earth, and liis son Mannus, as the 
fathers and founders of their race. ... A i)eculiar kind of 
verses is also current among them, by the recital of wliich, 
termed ' barding,' they stimulate their courage. . . . The land 
... is productive of grain, but unkindly to fruit-trees. It 
abounds in flocks and herds, . . . [which] form the most 
esteemed, and, indeed, the only species of wealth. . . . The 
greatest disgrace that can befall them is to have abandoned 
their shields. A person branded with this ignominy is not 
permitted to join in their religious rites or enter their assem- 
blies. ... In the election of kings, they have regard to birth ; 
in that of generals, to valor. Their kings have not an absolute 
or unlimited power ; and their generals command less through 
the force of authority than of example. If they are daring, 
adventurous, and conspicuous in action, they procure obedience 
from the admiration they inspire. None, however, but the 
priests are permitted to judge offenders ... so that the chas- 
tisement appears . . . the instigation of the god whom they 
suppose present with warriors. They also carry with them to 
battle certain images and standards taken from the sacred 
groves. It is a principal incentive to their courage, that their 
squadrons and battalions are . . . formed ... by the assemblage 
of families and clans. ... To their mothers and their wives, 
they bring their wounds for relief, nor do these dread to count 
or to search out the gashes. The women also administer food 
and encouragement to those who are fighting." 

" When the affairs of the state are of lesser importance, the 
chiefs decide ; when of greater, the whole community of can- 
tons ; but whatever is referred to, the decision of the people is 
first maturely discussed by the chiefs. ... In assembly, all sit 
in arms. Silence is proclaimed b}^ the priests. . . . The king 
or chief and such others as are renowned for age, for glory in 
arms, or eloquence, are heard, and gain attention rather by their 
ability to persuade than their authority to command. ... If a 
proposal displease, the assembly reject it l)y an inarticulate 



224 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

murmur ; if it prove agreeiible, they clash their javelins ; for 
the most honorable expression of assent among them is the 
sound of arms. Before this council it is . . . allowed to exhibit 
accusations and to prosecute capital offenses. Punishments are 
varied according to the nature of the crime. . . » In the same 
assemblies chiefs are also elected to administer justice through the 
cantons and districts. . . . The Germans transact no business, 
public or private, without being armed ; but it is not customary 
for any person to assume arms till the state has approved his 
ability to use them. Then, in the midst of the assembly, either 
one of the chiefs, or the father . . . equips the youth with a shield 
and javelin. . . . Before this . . . [he] is considered as part of 
the household ; afterwards, of the state. . . . 

" He who would gain dignity and rank among the chieftains 
must have many and brave companions ;^ . . . and among these, 
each wishes to stand highest in the regard of his chief. . . . 
The companion requires from the liberalit}^ of his chief the 
war-like steed, the bloody and conquering spear ; and in place 
of pay, food, homely but plentiful. The funds for these gifts 
must be found in war and rapine. ... It is customary for the 
several states to present, by voluntary and individual contribu- 
tions, cattle or grain to their chiefs 

" Almost singly among the barbarians, they content them- 
selves with one wife, whose bridal gifts are oxen, a caparisoned 
steed, a shield, spear, and sword. By virtue of these the wife 
is espoused ; and she in her turn makes a present of some arms 
to her husband . . . The woman ... is admonished by the 
very ceremonial of her marriage, that she comes to her hus- 
band as a partner in toils and dangers ; to suffer and to dare 
equally with him, in peace and in war ; this is indicated by the 
yoked oxen, the harnessed steed, the offered arms. . . . 

" It is an indispensable duty to adopt the enmities of a father 

1 Caesar says, " Whenever any of their chiefs has said in' an assembly 
that he will be a leader in some undertaking, they who approve of the 
man and the enterprise arise, and promise him their aid." These are 
called companions. 



STUDY ON THK TEUTONIC BARBAIMANS. 225 

or rehition, as well as tlicir fricudships : these, however, are 
not irreconcilable or perpetnal. Even homicide is atoned by 
a certain fine in cattle and sheep ; and the whole family accepts 
the satisfaction. . . . Every one, according to his ability, feasts 
his gnest ; when his provisions are exhansted, he who was late 
the host is now^ the guide and companion to another hospitable 
board. They enter the next house uninvited, and are received 
with equal cordiality. • . • Their drink is a liquor prepared from 
barley or wheat brought by fermentation to a certain resem- 
blance of wine. . . . Their food is simple : wild fruits, fresh 
venison, or coagulated milk. Of their slaves, each is the 
master of a habitation and household of his ow^n. The lord 
requires from him a certain quantity of grain, cattle, or cloth, 
as from a tenant ; and so far onl^' the subjection of the slave 
extends. His domestic offices are performed by his own wife 
and children." 

STUDY ON I AND 2. 

What is the political unit here ? What are its bonds of union ? 
How is property held ? How is it ruled ? What is meant by a patri- 
archal family ? 

What sort of literature exists among the Teutons ? AVhat makes 
a man a Teuton? What bond of union, then, among them? AVhat 
does Tacitus think of the reality of this bond ? AVhat proof does he 
give of its existence ? AA^hat are their occupations ? What is their 
ideal? In how many ways and how is this shown? Make a list of 
their magistrates. AA^hat is done by each ? How do their magistrates 
obtain power? AVho gives them power? AAliat assemblies have they? 
AVhat is done by each ? Compare with Homeric Greece and Regal 
Rome. AA'hat name will you give to this sort of political organization? 
AA^hat adjective describes the political position of the individual? 
AA^hat is the position of women among them ? What sort of women 
are evidently found among the Teutons ? How is the king or ruler 
supported? AA^hen and how is a man recognized as a full-grown 
Teuton ? What organization is there among the Teutons which we 
have not met before? AAliat is the bond which holds it together? 
How is it supported ? AVhat characterizes their mode of living when 
at home? What new units and new bonds of union have you dis- 
covered among the Germans? AAliat old ones? 



226 STUDIES IN GENEHAL HISTOKY. 

3. li!a-fracfs and Stories from Teutonic Sources, 

Fro7)i the Edda of Smimind. 

"It was God himself who made three castes of men eter- 
nally unequal ; he has created first the serf, with a dark skin, 
hard hands, and a bent back ; his task is to till the land, dig 
the peat, watch the goats and pigs. Then he made the man of 
bright eyes and rnddy skin, who knows how to tame cattle, to 
make the plow, to build houses and barns. And last of all, God 
made the noble, with yellow hair, and bright cheeks, and a 
glance as piercing as that of a dragon ; it is he who can shake 
the lance, and draw the bow and fight valiantly." 

From the " Burnt Njair 

In this saga we are told of the old man Njal, whose sons 
have been slain, and whose house is burning over his head. 
When entreated to save himself, he replies : " I am an old man, 
little fitted to avenge my murdered sous, so I will not go out 
to live in shame." 

The same saga tells us of lUugi, the brother of a great out- 
law who had been killed. When Illugi, however, falls into the 
hands of the men who had slain his brother, he chooses to die 
rather than promise not to take vengeance on them. 

In the same stor3', one man will not let his own father give 
land, but prefers to go to another part of country and seize it 
for himself ; while another chooses to get land by turning out 
an earlier settler to taking it as a gift from his brother ; and 
the woman Steinura will buy a farm rather than acce[)t it from 
her kinsmen. 

The Lay of Sigfiirde says: " Never trust the promises thy 
foe's kinsman makes thee." Says the Elder Pxlda : "Let no 
man go a step without his arms, for it is hard to know when 
a man may need a weapon." '' At home every one is his own 
master." " One's own home is best, small though it be." 

STUDY ON 3. 

What classes of men existed among the Teutons, and how is each 
regarded? How do they regard this division into classes? What is 



STUDY ON THE TEUTONIC HAI{ liAK LANS. 2'27 

the occupation of eacli ? How would manual la])or l>e regarded among 
them? Wiiat is theii ideal? If any one is wronged, who is responsi- 
ble for righting- that wrong? h\ this ease what appears as the unit, 
and what bond niakes of it a unit? What is the state of security 
among the Teutons ? How do you know ? What reason for this 
condition of affairs? AVliat cpialities of character appear in these 
extracts ? 

Note on Vocabulary. — In general, we find the same roots used in 
tlie r^atin, Greek, Keltic, Slavic,^ and Teutonic tongues for the follow- 
ing words : — (1) Father, mother, brother, sister, daughter, father- antl 
mother-in-law, daughter- and son-, brother- and sister-in-law; (2) ox, 
cow, sheep, horse, hog, donkey, goose, mouse, and fly ; (3) plow, yoke, 
grind, weave, sing, milk, sow, and reap; (4) house, field, clothes, wool, 
hides, cart, axe, knife, oar, rudder, boat, hammer. These are but a 
few out of the many examples that nught be given of the similarity 
of words in these languages. Among all these people the children 
are told the story of '' Cinderella " and of '' Prince Hatt under the 
Earth," and stories of invisible caps and rings and of brave dragon- 
killers. 

GENERAL STUDY. 

AVhat have we found in common between the Greeks, Romans, 
and Teutons? It is generally held that these common possessions 
indicate a common origin for all these peoples ; what must have been 
true in general of the time of that origin compared with the opening 
of European history at 1000 B.C.? If all these people, Kelts,"^ Teutons, 
Slavs, Greeks, and Komans came from Asia, which entered Europe 
first, judging by geographical distribution? [See map, pp. 252, 25o.] 
Why do you think so? Which last? How did the Greeks and 
Romans happen to be most quickly civilized ? Look over the above 
list of words and determine what occupations the Aryans ^ must have 
known before they separated. By what occupations must they have 
been supported? What do you think they ate and wore at that 
time? How^ did they amuse themselves? 

^ The Caucasians of Eastern Europe are mostly S/avs ; the purest Slavic 
V)lood is found in Russia. 

- The purest Kelts of Europe are the Irisli, Welsh, and Scotch. 

■^ Anjnn is the general name given to Greek, Roman, Keltic, Teutonic, 
and Slavic stocks. 



228 STUDIES IN GENERAL HLSTOKY. 



C. 11. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. — CONSTAN- 
TINE TO CHARLEMAGNE. 

A. Under Roman control. 323-476 A.D. 

B. The West under Barbarian Control, 476-800. 

C. Empire of Ciiarlemagne, 800-814 A.D. 

"And, behold, the Lord passed by, and a great and strong wind rent the 
mountams, and brake in pieces the rocks before the Lord ; but the Lord 
was not in the wind : and after the wind an earthquake ; but the Lord was 
not in the earthquake : and after the earthquake a fire ; but the Lord 
was not in the fire : and after the fire a still small voice." — I Kings, 
XIX. 11, 12. 



Chief original and contemporary sources, 323-476 ; 
Ammianus, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and St. Ambrose, 
Claudian, Salvian, Zosimus, the Theodosian Code, the 
Canon-hiw. 

476-814. For the Empire, the Justinian Code and Pro- 
copius ; for Italy, Cassiodorus ; for the Goths, Jornandes ; 
for France, Gregory of Tours, Eginhard, and the Capi- 
tularies^ of Charlemagne ; for England, Gildas, Bede, and 
the contemporary laws ; for the Church, all the above 
sources, and canons of the Councils ; for Islam, the 
Koran. 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English : for the 
Church and the Empire, Gibbon, Milman, Finlay, and 
Bryce ; for France, Guizot ; for England, Stubbs and 
Green ; for Islam, Gibbon, Muir, Ocldey, Freeman. 

1 Capitularies {little headings), summaries of law and custom. 



THE CHKISTIAN EMPIRE. 229 

II. A. THE OHEISTIAN EMPIEE UNDER EOMAN OONTEOL, 

323-476. 

1. Facts of Imperial Organization, 

a. List of Chief Officials of the Roman E7n2nre in the Fifth 
Century. (Guizot.) 

Fi7'st Chamberlain^ the chief of those who served the 
emperor in his apartments ; Count of the Palace., the chief 
of those who served him at table ; Count of the Sacred 
Wardrobe., the chief of those who cared for the imperial 
wardrobe ; three Secretaries of the Chamber^ private sec- 
retaries of the emperor, who transacted much public busi- 
ness for him ; three Griiardiayis of Silence., whose business 
it was to keep the palace of the emperor quiet ; Steward 
of the Cappadocian Estates; Counts of the Cavalry and 
Infantry of the Palace^ two select bands of soldiery for 
guarding the imperial person. 

Each of these officers had under him many subordinates 
and this whole body constituted the Imperial Court ; 
each emperor and empress and each Csesar had a similar 
court chosen by himself or herself. 

Master of the Offices., administered justice to the people 
of the palace ; received appeals of private citizens and the 
petitions of cities ; had charge of the imperial messengers 
and spies throughout the provinces, and the armorers of 
the empire. Qucestor, judged affairs referred to the prince; 
composed the laws and edicts of the emperor, kept a 
register of military officials. Count of the Sacred Largesses, 
treasurer of the empire, receiving and disbursing its 
funds. Croivn Treasurer., who managed the revenues more 
particularly belonging to the emperor, such as gifts and 
bequests. Secretary of State, kept the register of public 
officials, with their duties and salaries. 

Each of these officers had under him a great number of 



280 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

officials who managed the affah^s of his department in all 
parts of the empire ; it must also be remembered that eack 
emperor had these officers under him. Under Constantine 
nearly 600 permanent garrisons were kept up, consisting of 
more than 600,000 men ; the imperial body-guard alone 
consisted of 3500. 

h. The Classes of the Empire (fifth century). 

The privileged classes, including senators and high im- 
perial officials; officers of the palace; all the clergy; all 
the soldiers. 

The Curials, including all citizens possessing a certain 
amount of landed property. 

The common people, including the mass, having little or 
no landed property to speak of. 

The privilege of the first class was exemption from 
municipal functions and offices ; this exemption was 
hereditary. 

The Curials (Decurions) were so by hereditary right or 
by acquirement of property; they could not change their 
status by a voluntary act. Their duties were, (1) the ad- 
ministration of municipal affairs; (2) the collection and 
payment of imperial taxes. They could enter neither the 
army nor the Church until they had passed through the 
liighest municipal offices. They could neither sell their 
property nor leave their provinces without permission from 
the governor or judge of the province. 

c. The Church. 

Every little parish with the surrounding country was 
under a priest, appointed by the bishop ; the union of these 
parishes formed the bishop's diocese, with a city for its 
centre. The bishop was generally elected by the clergy 
and the people, and confirmed by the civil authority ; he 



THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 231 

was generally the I)efen>>or of his city, that is, the man 
through whom appeals for justice passed to the emperor ; 
often, too, he was an imperial judge. He ruled in accord- 
ance with the custom of Rome and with the decrees of 
Church councils, convened from time to time at various 
places, and consisting almost entirely of bishops. " Let 
the domains, estates, vineyards, slaves, and chattels, . . . 
which are given to parishes," says the council of Orleans, 
'^ remain in the power of the bishop." 

STUDY ON I. 

For whose benefit is the imperial government primarily organized? 
Compare with republican Rome or with Age of Pericles. In what 
countries have we before found such governments? What name will 
you give to such a government ? What is true of its cost ? What 
makes its cost? How far is this cost unjustifiable ? On which class 
of the people does the burden of its support come ? Who manages 
the imperial business? On what does its good or bad government 
depend? What classes will like and uphold it? Of what value to 
the government is each of these classes? Where and in whom is power 
centered? In its form, what is the organization of the Church ? Who 
hold its temporal power, and in what forms ? 

2. List of I^nportant Events and Changes, 323-476 A.D. 

Const ANTiNE, first Christian emperor. . . . 

By his edicts every man is allowed to follow 

the religion he prefers. The property and civil 



333 

TO 

337. 



rights of Christians are restored, while in the imperial 
service Christians are preferred to pagans. Byzantium is 
rebuilt, enlarged, encircled with walls, enriched with 
baths, palaces, and churches, and made the capital of the 
empire, under the name of Constantinople or New Rome. 
The Senate is no longer consulted by the emperors in 
regard to their colleagues, and barbarians^ are enrolled in 

1 Barbarians, in the Roman sense, are the uncivilized Europeans, mostly 
Teutonic, who dwell bevond the Rhine. 



232 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the imperial body-guard. In 325 the Ariaii controversy 
(see p. 221) cuhninates in the Council of Nice,i an 
assembly of bishops called together b}^ Constantine to 
decide upon the points of the orthodox creed. This coun- 
cil condemns Arius as a heretic ; and the emperor declares 
that those who resist its decisions shall be exiled. The 
Nicene Creed becomes, henceforth, the standard of faith 
throughout the empire. A long ecclesiastical quarrel in 
Africa is settled b}^ imperial authority, iri a synod of 
Italian prelates, the bishop of Rome presiding. 

Meanwhile, war goes on with the Persians and with 
various Teutonic tribes. 

Emperors: . . . Julian . . . Theodosius. 
Famous bishops: . . , St. Ambrose of Milan. . 
Civil wars between imperial candidates ; frontier 



337 

TO 

410. 



wars with Persians and Goths. Julian attempts to revive 
paganism. The Huns^ come from the East and attack 
the Goths. The Christianized (Arian) half of these ask 
the shelter of the empire ; large numbers are thus settled 
in the lands south of the Danube. Grossly deceived by 
the Romans, they begin to ravage the provinces, and a 
Gothic war arises, in the midst of which all the Goths in 
the eastern cities are massacred by a secret imperial order 
of Theodosius, who brings the war to an end, enrolls th( 
conquered barbarians in the legions, and gives them per- 
manent settlements in the provinces. Suspicions an( 
quarrels are rife between Romans and Goths. 

Theodosius suppresses and persecutes paganism ; Chris- 
tianity becomes the state faith of the empire ; Rome is 
decreed to have the first, Constantinople, the second^ 
ecclesiastical rank. 

After Theodosius, the empire is divided into Western 

1 Nicaea, in Bilhynia. 

2 A people allied to the Tartars, Finns, and modern Hungarians. 



THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 233 

and Eastern Empires, Ravenna becoming the capital of the 
West. The Germans, invading Italy, are repnlsed by Stili- 
cho, the Vandal general of the West, who has already 
saved Italy from the first invasion of Alaric, the master- 
general of the Imperial forces in Illyricnm, and king of 
the Visigoths, who comprise his legions. — The Roman 
troops being withdrawn to defend the continental fron- 
tiers of the empire, Britain becomes independent under 
native rulers. 

Utnperors unimportant, ruling in east and west 
separately. 

Bishops unimportant, save Leo the Gri^eat^ pope 



410 

TO 

476. 



of Rome, and aS'^. Chrysostom^ bishop of Constantinople. 

Alaric again invades Italy, complaining of delay in the 
pay of his legions, and of an unprovoked Italian massacre 
of Goths. Ravaging the country, he advances on Rome 
and sacks it, sparing, however, the Christians and the 
Christian churches. After his death, his brother-in-law 
Athaulf, chosen king by the Gothic troops, is appointed 
Roman general over his own subjects, and sent with them 
to fight barbarians beyond the Alps ; they defeat the 
Vandals in Spain, and finally settle in Aquitaine, taking 
one-third of the land as their own in return for their 
services. About the same time the emperors grant per- 
manent settlement in Gaul to Burgundians and the 
Franks. 1 Throughout the provinces, revolts ; in Africa a 
Roman general, revolting, calls to his aid Grenseric, king 
of the Arian Vandals, who crosses into Africa, persecutes 
and attacks the orthodox ^ provincials, and ultimately con- 
quers and settles Africa for himself and his people. 

Attila, king of the Huns, the "Scourge of God," 

^ The name given to a confederation (warrior band?) of freemen 
(Franks) from various Germanic tribes. 

■^ Those following the Nicene creed, in opposition to Arianism. 



234 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

advancing from the north, ravages first the Eastern, then 
the Western, Empire ; jEtius, the Scythian master-general 
of the western legions, now mostly composed of barbari- 
ans, drives him from Gaul by the battle of Chalons 
(Strasbourg). He now enters Italy; ruins Aquileia, 
whose fugitives found Venice; is persuaded to leave by 
the entreaties of Pope Leo I. Hungary becomes the only 
permanent European settlement of the Huns. 

Britain, still Roman in its civilization, is invaded by the 
Anglo-Saxons (449). Nearly at the same time the Irish 
are converted to Christianity by St. Patrick. In the east, 
important heresies cause wide-spread revolt and difBculty. 

The widow of one emperor, insulted by his successor, 
asks Genseric the Vandal to avenge her ; hence, Genseric 
and his Vandals sail for Rome and sack it. At the interces- 
sion of Pope Leo, they forbear to use torture or lire. 

The Arian and barbarian legions of Italy ask 



476. 



one-third of the land of Italy from the Western] 
Empire ; refused, they mutiny, and declare Odovaker their] 
king. Augastulus, emperor of the West, resigns, and the] 
Senate sends an embassy to Zeno, emperor of the East, to 
say that they " disclaim the necessity, or even the wish, of 
continuing any longer the imperial succession in Italy; 
since, in their opinion, the majesty of a sole monarch is 
sufficient to pervade and protect at the same time both 
the East and the West. In their own name, and in the, 
name of the people, they consent that the seat of universal 
empire shall be transferred from Rome to Constantinople.] 
. . . The republic . . . may safely confide in the civil and 
military virtues of Odovaker; and they humbly request] 
that the emperor will invest him with the title of patri- 
cian, ^ and with the administration of . . . Italy." This] 

1 A title used in the late empire, conferring high honor, generally] 
accompanied with suljstantial power. 



THE CHRISTIAN KM PIKE. 235 

request pri'anterl, Orlovalcer becomes ruler of Italy, and 
grants, with the consent of the Senate, the rule of Gaul 
and Spain to the king of the Arian Visigoths. This event 
of 476 is popularly known as the " Fall of the Western 
Empire." 

STUDY ON 2. 

What great change has passed over the population of the empire V 
(Compare maps on pp. 190 and 252, 253.) Through what part of the 
Roman organization has this been accomplished? Through what 
faults of Roman character ? What in organization on the barbarian 
side has favored this change ? In character ? In what did the so- 
called " Fall of the Roman Empire " consist ? What proofs did that 
event give of her weakness? What events prepared the way for this? 

What tendencies caused the foundation of Constantinople and the 
establishment of Christianity as the i-eligion of the empire ? What 
facts can you give to illustrate or prove the absolutism of the empe- 
rors during this period ? In what matter do they show themselves 
especially interested? By virtue of what im]3erial office may they con- 
sider inis matter their business? AVhat tendency culminates in the 
Council of Nice, and what danger does that council enable the Church 
to avoid ? What relation do the barbarians hold to Christianity? To 
its orthodox form ? What relation between these facts and their 
peaceful or hostile relations with the jorovincials? Illustrate. Do you 
know of any similar facts in modern times? 

What are the centres of ecclesiastical power ? Why do they become 
so ? Of the two, which centre has the fewer rivals in its own part of 
the empire ? (See map.) Which of the two will be comparatively 
greater ? 

Name two or three things which the barbarians learned or adopted 
from the Romans before 476 a.d. What characterizes this period ? 
Had you been a Roman living at 476 a.d., how would you have 
described the event known as the "Fall of Rome"? 



236 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

3. List of Great Kames of the Period, 

a. Me7i of the Fourth Century. 



Name. 



Ambrose, St, 



Ammianus. 



Anthony, St. 



Arius. 



Athanasius. 



Birth and Circumstance. 



Born in Gaul, of Roman 
family of high official 
rank ; educated at 
Rome ; lawyer and 
consular magistrate ; 
bishop of Milan. 



Greek soldier of Anti- 
och, of good family. 

Of a wealthy Christian 
Egyptian family ; 
supported himself by 
cultivating a small 
field of wheat, and by 
making mats. 



Deeds and Woriis. 



Egj'ptlan ; deacon, 
presbyter of Alexan- 
dria ; educated at 
Antioch. 

Egyptian ; educated at 
Alexandria, where he 
became archbishop. 



Author of letters, com- 
mentaries, sermons, 
and hymns ; intro- 
duced responsive 
singing into church 
service ; founded a 
monastery in Milan ; 
ransomed from the 
barbarians, with the 
wealth of the Church, 
an enormous number 
of captives. 

Author of a continua- 
tion of the history of 
Tacitus. 

Lived alone in a moun- 
tain desert on bread 
and water, fasting, 
praying, laboring ; 
believed by himself 
and others to work 
miracles ; father of 
monasticism; wrote a 
few letters to Eastern 
churches. 

Author of the Arian 
heresy. 



Defender of orthodoxy 
against Arius ; con- 
troversial and theo- 
logical writings. 



THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 



237 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


AuKUstine, St. 


Numidian, of humble 


Professor of rhetoric 


Latin. 




parentage ; bishop of 


and writer on Chris- 






Hippo. 


tian theology ; de- 
fender of orthodox 
Christianity against 
various heresies; 
founded a convent 
and monastery; au- 
thor of letters, com- 
mentaries, personal 
confessions, sermons, 
and of the " City of 
God," a comparison 
of Rome and the 
Church. 




Constantine. 


Moesian(l) ; son of 


Founder of Constanti- 


. 




previous emperor; 


nople. (See Summary 






soldier and general. 


of Events.) 




Basil, St. 


Cappadocian ; of noble 


Teacher of rhetoric ; 


Greek 




and wealthy Christian 


used his wealth for 






family ; educated at 


the poor; founded in 






Caesarea, Constanti- 


Asia Minor self- 






nople, and Athens ; 


supporting monastic 






bishop of Caesarea. 


communities devoted 
to prayer and labor; 
founded hospitals, 
houses of refuge, 
orphanages ; author 
of moral and theo- 
logical works. 




Chrysostom, St. 


Born at Antioch, of 


Famous orator and 


Greek 




high, official, and 


preacher; author of 






wealthy family; edu- 


letters, commentaries, 






cated as a lawyer ; 


sermons, orations ; 






preacher; ascetic 


popularized the use 






and monk ; bishop of 


of hymns in Con- 






Constantinople. 


stantinople. 





238 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 


Bifth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


Eusebius. 


Native and bishop of 


Author of an ecclesi- 


Greek. 




Cffisarea. 


astical history. 




Eutropius. 


Soldier, and secretary 


Author of a summary 


Latin. 




for Constantine; a 


of Roman history. 






tolerant pagan. 






Gregory, 


Cappadoeian ; studied 


Poet and orator, speak- 


Greek. 


Nazianzen. 


at Ca?sarea, Alexan- 


ing and writing on 






dria, and Athens ; 


religious themes ; 






monk with St. Basil ; 


gave his property to 






bishop of Constanti- 


the poor. 






nople. 






Helena, St. 


Mother of Constantine ; 


Ransomed captives ; 


. 




British(?) Christian. 


gave largely to the 
needy ; pilgrim to 
Palestine, where it is 
said she discovered 
the Holy Sepulchre 
and the true cross. 




Jerome. St. 


Pannonian; of family 


Translator of the Bible 


Latni. 




in good circumstances 


into Latin ( Vulgate) ; 






and position ; studied 


used his own wealth 






rhetoric at Eome and 


to support religious 






Treves ; hermit in 


and charitable work; 






Syrian desert. 


Ijromoted the found- 
ing of convents and 
monasteries ; author 
of letters, commenta- 
ries, historical and 
controversial writings 
connected with the 
Church. 




Julian. 


Nephew of Constan- 


Attempts to restore 


Greek 




tine ; emperor of 


naganism ; author of 






Rome. 


refutation of Christi- 
anity and of memoirs 
of his German 
cam])aigns. 





THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 



239 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Worlis. 


Language 
used. 


Martin, St. 


Pannonian ; of respect- 


Established first French 


Latin, 




able family; soldier; 


monastery, whore 






monk ; bishop of 


beautiful manuscripts 






Tours. 


were produced ; bril- 
liant orator and 
" model of charity." 




Theodosius. 


Son of preceding em- 


Author of " Theodosian 


Latin. 




peror ; military 


Code/' a collection of 






training. 


Roman laws. (See 2.) 




umias. 


Goth; hostage at Con- 


Arranged and complet- 


Gothic 




stantinople ; bishop 


ed a Gothic alphabet 


and 




and missionary among 


and translated the 


Latin. 




his own people. 


Bible into Gothic. 





h. Men of the Fifth Century, 400-476. 



^Etius. 
Alaric. 

Attilao 
Claudian. 



Genseric. 

Leo I., the 
Great, St. 



Scythian; master- 
general for Romans. 

Visigoth, i.e. king, and 
general of Gothic 
legions in the pay of 
Rome. 

Hun ; war-chief and 
king of Hunnic bands, 

Alexandrian ; patron- 
ized by Stilicho ; 
pagan. 

Vandal king and war- 
chief. 

Roman ; religious edu- 
cation; deacon; 
ambassador of the 
empire ; po])e. 



See 2. 
See 2. 

See 2. 



Wrote poems on con- 
temporary life and 
events. 

See 2. 



Wrote sermons and 
letters^ (See 2.) 



Latin. 



Latin 



240 



STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOKY. 



Name. 


Bitth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


Marcella, St. 


Roman lady of liigli 


Founded a " Convent 






birtli and wealth ; 


of relieving virgins " ; 






friend of St. Jerome. 


instructed by St. Je- 
rome ; used her wealth 
and time for religion 
and charity. 




Odovaker. 


Teuton; declared 
king of barbarian 
legions of Rome. 


See 2. 


. . . 


Patrick, St. 


Scotch; son of a Ro- 


Converted the Irish 


Latin. 




man decurion ; bishop. 


and arranged their 
laws ; is thought to 
have introduced Ro- 
man alphabet into 
Ireland; established 
monasteries, schools, 
and churches. 




Salvian. 


Gaul ; born at Cologne 


Author of works on 


Latin. 




or Treves. 


morals and theology, 
homilies, letters. 




Sozomei . 


Palestine; studied law 


Author of history of 


Greek. 




at Berytus ; lawyer. 


the Church. 




Sidonius, Apol- 


Of a noble family of 


Author of poems and 


Latin. 


linaris, St. 


Lyons ; bishop of 
Clermont. 


letters. 




Simeon 


Syrian shepherd ; af ter- 


Lived for 30 years on a 


. . . 


Stylites, St. 


Avard monk-liermit. 


pillar 60 ft. high; 
believed to 
possess miraculous 
power ; councillor of 
Eastern emperor ; ob- 
ject of pilgrimages. 




Stilicho. 


Vandal(?) ; general of 
Roman legions of 
west. 


See 2. 




Zosimus 


Greek ; lawyer and 


Historian of Roman 


Greek. 




magistrate. 


Empire. 





THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE 



241 




242 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOIIY. 

STUDY ON 3. 

To what official classes do the great men of this period mostly 
belong ? What two kinds of greatness are prominent ? From what 
parts of the empire, or from what nationalities, does each kind come? 
What reason can you give for this? Of what use is each kind? 
Which is of use to Rome in particular? Which to the w^orld in 
general? What are the centres of intellectual activity in the 
empire ? What class largely furnish the bishops ? What historic reason 
for these facts? What are the intellectual tastes of the period? What 
part of the empire is under predominant Roman influence? Greek? 
What fact indicates this ? What new ideal appears in this period ? 
From what part of the empire comes the impulse towards this ideal ? 
What new countries or peoples receive an impulse toward civilization, 
and how does the impulse come ? Judging from the picture on p. 241, 
what remark have you to make of the excellence of art in this period ? 
What new material appears in literature and in art? 



4. Significant Laws and Customs of the Period* 

a. Under Constantine. — Bishops were made judges of 
all the officers of the Church, and of all who smned against 
her. — The churches in each city were allowed to own 
land, and were given a regular allowance of grain for 
distribution among the poor. — Criminals were no longer 
to be branded on the forehead, since man was made in the 
"image of God," nor were men to be condemned to fight 
as gladiators. — Parents were forbidden to expose or sell 
their children because of poverty,^ and prison regulations 
became milder. — Two laws were issued in the same year: 
one, that Sunday should be strictly observed ; the other, 
that the auguries should be regularly consulted. — From 
this time on, it was legal to use torture with every class 
of citizens, when the charge was treason against "the 
prince or republic." — The chief officers of the empire 
were saluted as "Your Sincerity, Your Gravity, Your 

1 The burden of taxation was such that these practices were common. 



THE CHRISTIAN EMPlkK. 24o 

Excellency, Your Eminence, Your Sublime and Won- 
derful Magnitude, Your Illustrious and Magnificent 
Highness." 

In the reign of Constantine, and even before, many 
Christians went to the wildest and most solitary places, 
and there lived, clothed in rags or skins, suffering heat and 
cold, hunger and thirst, and spending their time in prayer 
and the various exercises of religion. Such were said to 
be ascetics ; in many parts of the empire these ascetics 
were gathered into communities, and lived together under 
vows of poverty, celibacy, and holiness. Such a com- 
munity of men QiJionks^ made the monastery ; of women 
Qnuns)^ the nunnery. 

h, Julian orders one of his pagan priests to "build nume- 
rous places of refuge and entertainment of strangers in 
every city. For it is a disgrace that these impious 
Christians, besides their own people, should support ours 
also, while ours are seen of all men to perish without any 
assistance from us." 

c. Under Theodosius. — The Theodosian code consisted 
of 16 books written in Latin, the last being wholly de- 
voted to ecclesiastical law. In it occurred the following- 
decrees : — 

" It is our pleasure that all the nations . . . should stead- 
fastly adhere to the religion which was taught by St. Peter 
to the Romans ; . . . and as we judge all others are extrav- 
agant madmen, we brand them with the infamous name 
of heretics." — Curials, who had cheated about the taxes 
or owed anything upon them, were to be scourged wdth a 
whip knotted with lead. 

" In the churches situated in the domains of any private 
person, or in a village, or in any other place, let them only 
ordain as priests the men of the place itself, and not of 
any other domain, in order that they may continue to bear 



244 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTOKY. 

the burden of the poll-tax. . . . With respect to slaves oi 
laborers, the admonition of their masters, and repeated 
floggings, will deter them from this perverse faith " 
of paganism. 

In the time of Theodosius, the flight of birds was still 
consulted by the augurs; and, at his death, the same 
heathen honors were paid him as to the pagan emperors. 

5. Illustrative Extracts and Stories fro^n ContempO' 
rary Sources, 

a. From Ammianus. (Of the life at Rome.) 

" In the first place, we will speak of the faults of the nobles. 
. . . Some men . . . are magnificent in silken robes . . . and are 
followed by a vast troop of servants, with a din like that of a 
company of soldiers. . . . Some of these, when any one meets 
and begins to salute them, toss their heads, . . . offering their 
flatterers their knees or hands to kiss. A number of idle 
chatterers frequent their houses, and . . . admire the construc- 
tion of the lofty pillars, and the walls inlaid with stones of 
carefully chosen colors, and extol these grandees with super- 
human praises. Sometimes scales are sent for at their enter- 
tainments to weigh the fish, or the birds, or the dormice which 
are set on the table ; and then the size of them is dwelt on over 
and over again, to the great weariness of those present . . . 
especially when near thirt}" secretaries stand by, with . . . 
memorandum books, to record all these circumstances. . . . And 
there are among them some who are such severe judges of 
offenses, that if a slave is too long in bringing them hot water, 
they will order him to be scourged with three hundred stripes. 
. . . Many among them deny the existence of a superior 
Power in heaven, and yet neither appear in public, nor dine, 
nor think that they can bathe . . . before they have consulted 
an almanac, and learnt where [for example] the planet Mercury 
is, or in what portion of Cancer the moon is as she passes 
through the heavens. . . . And let us come to the idle and lazy 



THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 245 

common people . . . These men spend their whole lives in 
drinking, and gambling . . . and pleasures, and public specta- 
cles ; . . . the Circus Maximus is their temple, their home, their 
public assembly' ; in fact, their whole hope and desire. . . . 
When the wished-for day of the equestrian games dawns . . . 
they all rush out with headlong haste, as if with their speed 
they would outstrip the very chariots which are going to race ; 
while, as to the event of the contest, they are all torn asunder 
by opposite wishes, and the greater part of them, through their 
anxiety, pass sleepless nights. . . . Among these men are 
many chiefl}^ addicted to fattening themselves up by gluttony, 
who, following the scent of any delicate food, . . . get an en- 
trance into the halls, biting their nails while the dishes are 
i>ettino^ cool." 

Ammiauus, writing for the East, tells us that in the Gothic 
war the Goths were aided by "no inconsiderable number of 
men . . . who were unable to endure the heavy burden of their 
taxes." And Orosius, in Spain, says : These same Van- 
dals " treat the Romans so kindly that there are found 
those who prefer freedom with poverty among the barbari- 
ans to a life rendered miserable bj' taxation among their own 
countrymen." 

b. From a Letter of St. Jerome. 

"I sat alone; I was filled with bitterness; my limbs were 
uncomely and rough with sackcloth, and my squalid skin became 
as black as an Ethiopian's. Everv day I was in tears and 
groans ; and if ever the sleep which hung upon my eyelids 
overcame my resistance, I knocked against the ground my bare 
bones, which scarce clung together. I say nothing of my meat 
and drink, since the monks even when sick use cold water, and 
it is thought a luxury if they ever partake of cooked food. 
Through fear of hell, I had condemned myself to prison ; I had 
scorpions and wild beasts for my only companions. . . . My 
face was white with fasting, my body was cold ; the man, 
within his own flesh, was dead before his time." 



240 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOiiV. 

STUDY ON 4, AND 5 i( AND h, 

is ame all the; evidences displayed by these extracts of the power ol 
Christianity. What kinds of power are shown ? In what way is this 
power exercised ? Proofs. What does 4 tell us of the form of gov- 
ernment? Of its spirit? What relation seems to exist between pa- 
ganism and Christianity? What new persecution arises? What new 
organization springs from the new ideal -which you have noted in 
such men as St. Jerome ? What evils and vices exist in the Roman 
Empire of this period ? What relation between these evils and vices 
and her previous history ? AVhat relation between them and the so- 
called "Fall of the Western Empire " ? Against what manner of life 
and what Roman ideal does 5 h show a reaction ? 

c From St. Augustine's '^City of God.'' (Of the pagan gods.) 

" Why did tliose gods . . . issue do laws which might have 
guided their devotees to a virtuous life? . . . Let them show or 
name to us the places which w^ere at any time consecrated to 
assemblages, in which . . . the people were commanded in the 
name of the gods to restrain avarice, bridle impurity, and con- 
quer ambition, ... as we can point to our churches built for 
this purpose in every land where the Christian religion is 
received." " Know then, that the scenic games, exhibitions of 
shameless folly and license, were established at Rome, not by 
men's vicious cravings, but by the appointment of your gods. . . . 
These astute and wicked spirits . . . took occasion to infect, not 
the bodies, but the morals of their worshippers." 

(Of Rome.; 

" To be brief, the city of Rome was founded ... by which 
Ood was pleased to conquer the whole world, and subdue it far 
and wide by bringing it into one fellowship of government and 
laws." 

d. Theodosms and, Ambrose. 

In a fit of rage the Emperor Theodosius had ordered a gen- 
eral massacre of the people in one of the cities of the empire. 
Soon after, he entered the great church of Milan to worship 



THE CHEISTIAN EMPIRE. 247 

there as usual. In the doorwa}', Ambrose, the archbishop, met 
liim witli the words : ' ' Robed as you are in the imperial pur- 
ple, you are still but a man whose body will crumble to dust, 
whose spirit will return to the God who gave it. What account 
will you then be able to give of this dreadful massacre of your 
subjects? Your subjects indeed, but also your fellow-servants, 
with souls as precious in the sight of God as yours." The 
emperor, full of remorse and repentance, humbled himself 
before the archbishop, who proposed to him the following plan : 
that he should prepare a law that no man should be put to 
death until thirty days after his condemnation. To this the 
emperor agreed. Soon after, he tried to partake of the com- 
munion within the altar railings ; but Ambrose sent this mes- 
sage to him: "The emperor must worship outside the rails 
with the rest of the laity." Theodosius obeyed, excusing him- 
self, because in Constantinople he had always come within the 
altar space. 

e. From Claudian. (On the prime minister of the Eastern 

emperor.) 

"He who was wont to satisfy his greed 
With pantry pickings, and on crusts to feed, 
Who from its hinges wrenched the cupboard door 
And stuck sly fingers in the housewife's store, 
Now wastes the u^orld ! All lands that intervene 
Twixt Persia's sands and Balkan's forests green 
Are set for sale by this base huckstering slave. 

One governs Asia, for a farm 'twas sold ; 

Another Syria [sapphires set in gold] 

His wife's adornment, were the price he paid ; 

***** 
A tariff rules the various nations' fates — 
Galatia, Pontus, Lydia sold like sheep ; 
Lycia's a bargain, you shall have it cheap; 
For Phrygia we must charge a little more." 



248 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

From Zoswius. (Of the prime ministers of tlie sons of 
Theodosius.) 

" By these men, all lawsuits were divided according to their 
own pleasure, and that litigant departed victorious who had 
purchased their vote with money, or had in some other way . . . 
influenced the good-will of the judge ; . . . wealth poured from 
all quarters into the mansions of Rufiuus and Stilicho (the 
ministers) , while poverty was everywhere overspreading houses 
once accounted wealthy." 
/. From Salvia n, (On taxation.) 

" Messengers arrive express, bringing lettiers from the High- 
est Sublimities [emperor] which are addressed to a few illus- 
trious persons to work the ruin of the multitude. These meet ; 
they decree certain additions to the taxes, but they do not pay 
these taxes themselves ; they leave that to be done by the poor. 
. . . Does it seem unreasonable to complain that one class 
orders the taxes which have to be paid by another? . . . and 
if it should happen . . . that the emperor should . . . decree a 
return of some part of the contributions to the poor province, 
at once these rich men divide among themselves the gift which 
was meant to help all. ... So far are the barbarian Goths from 
tolerating frauds like these, that not even the Romans who live 
under Gothic rule are called upon to endure them. And hence 
the one wish of all the Romans in those parts is, that it may 
never be necessary for them to pass under the Roman jurisdic- 
tion. . . . And thus the name of Roman citizen is now volun- 
tarily abandoned ; nay, it is shunned." 

(The vow.) 

"A powerful [man] . . . wished to take away the last 
remnant of a poor man's substance. Salvian " remonstrated, 
but " the man replied that the deed was ' now a religious duty 
which he dared not neglect,' because he ' liad sworn by Christ 
to take that man's property.'" 
g. From a Letter of Synesiiis. 

In the first years of the fifth century, the bishop Synesius, 
addressing the Eastern emperor, writes, " There is scarcely one 



THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 249 

of our families who has not some Goth as a servant ; in our 
cities, the masons, the water-carriers, the porters, are Goths." 

h. From Oroshts. (The speech of Athaulf, brother of 
Alaric [see 2]). 
" It was at first my wish to destroy the Roman name, and 
erect in its place a Gothic empire, taking to myself the place and 
the powers of Caesar Augustus. But when experience taught 
me that the untameable barbarism of the Goths would not 
suffer them to live beneath the sway of law . . ., I chose the 
glor\' of renewing and maintaining by Gothic strength the fame 
of Rome, desiring to go down to posterity as the restorer of 
that Roman power which it was beyond my power to replace." 

Compare with this the following letter from the Burgundian 
king to the Eastern emperor. He writes to thank the emperor 
for the titles of Count and Patrician, which were conferred upon 
him. "My people is yours," he writes, "and to rule them 
delights me less than to serve you. . . . Our ancestors have 
always preferred what an emperor gave to all their fathers 
could bequeath. In ruling our nation, we hold ourselves but 
your lieutenants : you, whose divinely-appointed sway no 
barrier bounds, whose beams shine from the Bosphorus into 
distant Gaul, employ us to administer the remoter regions of 
your empire ; your world is our Fatherland." 

STUDIES ON 5, c~h. 

What great contrast between the faith of paganism and of Chris- 
tianity? What were the devils and demons of the early Chm'cb ? 
AVhat did Rome seem to the Clmrch and the empire of the fourth and 
fifth centm'ies? To the barbarians? What was the comparative 
power of the Church in Rome and Constantinople ? What reason can 
you think of for this ? What power had Ambrose over Theodosius ? 
What influence did he exert? What principle did he announce? In 
what way was the government carried on, judging from the extracts ? 
What evils do these extracts prove to exist in the empire ? What 
light does / throw on the easy change of power from Roman to bar- 
barian hands? How was Christianity very often understood? What 
seems to have been the ambition of the barbarians? 



250 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

General Questions. — In what capacities did the barbarians enter 
and become a part of the empire ? What did the empire give them ? 
Prove it. Make a list of all the powers of the Church. What justifi- 
cation was there for the persecution of heresy by emperors? Who 
was the head of the Church in the earlier part of the period ? What 
classes of people did Christianity favor, and by whom would it be 
supported? 



II. BandC. THE WEST UNDER BAEBARIAN OONTEOL; 
EMPIEE OP CHARLEMAGNE. 

1. Summary of Events from 476-800 A.D. 



476 

TO 

537. 



Age of Clovis and Theodoric the Great^ knoivn in 
the North as Dietrich of Berne ( Verona) . 

In the East., important heresies arise, causing 
revolt and war, especially in Syria and Egypt. 

In Italy^ Theodoric the Goth asks Zeno, for whom 
he commands the Ostrogoths, to permit him to drive 
Odovaker from Italy and become patrician in his stead 
(see p. 234). Zeno consents, and the Arian Ostrogoths 
enter Italy, where they are granted one-third of the land ; 
constant difficulties arise between them and the orthodox 
Italians. 

In G-aul^ Clovis, king of the Franks, is converted to 
orthodox Christianity ; he and his warriors are at once 
baptized, and Clovis is henceforth regarded by the Gallo- 
Romans as their protector. He conquers the Arian Visi- 
goths and Burgundians (see map), receives from Constan- 
tine the titles of patrician and consul, and becomes the 
founder of the Merovingian dynasty in France. At his 
death his dominion is divided among his sons. 

Li Britain, the constant struggle of the native Keltv 
aofainst the invading' Saxons still o-oes on. 



THE WEST UNDEK BAKBAKIAN C.'ONTKOL. 251 



Age of Justinian^ Emperor of the East. 
In the East, Justinian makes, through his lawyer, 
Trebonian, final and authoritative collections of 



537 

TO 

565. 



Roman law, known as " The Code, the Pandects, and the 
Institutes of Justinian." Through his general, Belisa- 
rius, he recovers Italy, Africa, and Southern Spain from 
the rule of the Goths and Vandals, and places them 
directly under Byzantine officials, the most important of 
whom is the Exarch of Ravenna, who rules Italy in the 
name of the East. Meanwhile, the empire is attacked 
by Persians, Slavs, and Avars,^ while it nearly loses Egypt 
and Syria by wide-spread heresies, which cause great dis- 
affection towards Constantinople. 

In France, constant strife between kingdoms. 

I7i Britain, continual war between Saxon and Kelt. 

Age of Pope Gregory the Great and Mohammed. 
In the East, constant wars with Persians and 
Avars, and constant difficulties with Syrian and 



565 

TO 

632. 



Egyptian heretics. In Mecca, in Arabia, Mohammed 
is born ; claiming divine inspiration, he preaches that 
there is no God but one, and that Mohammed is his 
prophet. This doctrine spreads rapidly through the East, 
but Mohammed is so persecuted at Mecca, that, in 622, 
he flees to Medina (Ilegira') ; from that time, he preaches 
to his disciples the duty of fighting for their faitli. 

In Italy, the Lombards seize the valley of the Po ; Italy 
implores armed assistance from the East, which the East 
is unable to give. In this crisis Gregory the Great himself 
directs the movements of troops, urges the Italians to 
their own defence, and finally makes a truce with the 
Lombards without appealing to the emperor; soon after, 



1 The Avars were of the same race as the modern Turks, namely. 
Turanian. 




EUROPE 

IN THE REIGN OF 

THEODORIC 

C A. D. 500. 



I I Roman Empire 

I I Teutonic Settlements, 
I ] Celts 



254 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

also through his agency, the Lombards exchange their 
Arian for the orthodox form of Christianity. 
In Spain, the Vandals do the same. 
In France, constant strife between the kingdoms. 
In England, the Kelts are still resisting the invading 
Saxons, who are converted to orthodox Christianity by 
St. Augustine and his missionaries, sent by Gregory the 
Great. 

Age of Mohammedan Conquest. 
In the East, the Bulgarians attack the empire 
from the north, and settle south of the Danube ; 



632 

TO 

733. 



the Mohammedans (Arabians or Saracens) conquer Per- 
sia, and easily wrest from the empire Syria, Egypt, 
and Africa; everywhere they give men the choice of 
" Koran, tribute, or sword." By the aid of the African 
Moors, they seize on Spain and enter France. Here they 
are worsted by the Franks under Charles Martel (the 
hammer), and with the battle of Tours, in 732, their 
career of conquest in Europe ends. Meanwhile, they are 
repulsed from Constantinople by Leo the Isaurian. In 
the lands they win, the caliphs, or successors of Mo- 
hammed, are unquestioningly obeyed by all Mohammedans 
as God-given rulers. 

In France, continued strife between kingdoms. 

In Britain, the stronger kingdoms gradually overcome 
the weaker. 

Age of Charle7nag 7ie. 

The bishop of Rome and the emperor of the 
East quarrel over the true use of images. The 



733 

TO 

814. 



Italians, rising in defence of their faith and their bishop, 
slay the Exarch. The Lombards, in the same cause, seize 
on Ravenna, and then demand the submission of Rome. 

The pope now calls on the Franks, who send him 
effectual aid ; first, in the person of Pippin, who wrests 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 255 

the Exarchate ^ from the Lombards and gives it to the 
pope, who, in return, crowns him the king of the Franks ; 
next, in the person of Charlemagne, who conquers the 
Lombards for good, confirms the Exarchate to the pope, 
and is crowned emperor of the West by Pope Leo in 
St. Peter's in Rome (800). Thus begins the Holy Roman 
Empire, which includes, at Charlemagne's death, the 
countries marked red on the map, pp. 256, 257. The con- 
quest of the Saxons is accompanied by their conversion 
from paganism to Christianity, Charlemagne giving them 
a choice between conversion, and death by the sword. 
Their territory is made into eight bishoprics, and " these 
episcopal seats became the first schools and cities of that 
savage land." 

In Britain^ continued strife of Saxon kingdoms, with 
tendency toward consolidation. 

The Mohammedan Caliphate is divided, the eastern lands 
of Islam having as centre, first, Damascus, then, Bagdad ; 
the western owning allegiance to the caliph of Cordova. 

STUDY ON I AND MAP. 
What appears the most powerful influence of this period ? Xame 
all the proofs of its power. Under what titles do the barbarians rule 
the West ? By virtue of what force ? What characterizes this period ? 
What must have been true of the Roman provincial life during this 
time? What kind of duties and powers does the pope exercise? 
What historic reason is there for the supremacy of the bishop of 
Rome? What parts of the empire pass under Mohammedan rule? 
What old seats of Oriental influence or power does that rule include in 
Asia, Africa, and Europe ? What prepared the way for this conquest 
in Syria and Egypt? What parallel between the histoiy of the 
^lohammedan and Roman empires ? What tendencies culminated in 
the crowning of Charlemagne? Does that crowning represent a 
revolt from, or a continuation of the Roman Empire ? Compare the 



The city and surrounding territory of Ravenna. 




EUROPE 

IN THE TIME OF 

CHARLES THE GREAT 

814. 



Roman Mnpire of t M 

Roman Empire oft) * 
and Us dependent i: J 



26 30 



40 45 50 55 60 



s 



r s 



ar 



^. 



ChersonQ 



5 U L G l^- / 1 „, t 

Hadrianpple o V^^L,^. 







/ABl 



tiocH 



■rhooes I 



aascus 



4ie> 



! o F 

J Western Caliphate 

J Eastern Caliphate 




ao^o 



Struthers, SerToss* Co.. Bugr'3, N.Y. 



258 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



empire of Charlemagne with Roman Empire of second century ; 
with modern Europe. What great difference between this and the 
old empire in the composition of its population? In the source of 
imperial power? What unity does this new empire possess? Why 
is it called " Holy " ? Why " Roman " ? Name all the conquests of the 
Christian empire from Constantine to Charlemagne. What form 
do they assume with reference to the Church ? To become a Roman 
involved becoming what else ? 

2. List of Famous Names of Period, 

a. Men of Sixth Century (476-600). 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


Augustine, St. 


Roman monk ; first 


Missionary to Britain, 


Latin. 




archbishop of Can- 


which he enters with 






terbury. 


a band of monks, sent 
by Pope Gregory the 
Great ; converts the 
king of Kent and his 
people. 




Belisariug. 


Thracian; of obscure 


See 1. 


. . c 




birth ; general of 








Justinian. 






Benedict, St. 


Italian; of wealthy 


Eloquent preacher ; 


Latin. 




and noble family ; 


founder of the sect 






hermit. 


of Benedictine 
monks, and of many 
monasteries, notably 
that of Monte Cassi- 
no, near Rome. 




Boethius. 


Roman patrician, con- 


Translator of Aristotle, 


Latin. 




sul, and senator ; high 


Ptolemy, and other 






official under 


Greek writers ; 






Theodoric. 


author of " Consola- 
tion of Philosophy," 
a work dealing with 
theology and phi- 
losophy. 





THE WEST UNDER BAKBAKIAN CONTROL. 



259 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


Cassiodorus. 


South Italian ; of 


Author of philosophic 


Latin. 




wealthy and noble 


and historic works 






family ; minister of 


and letters ; founds a 






Odovaker and Theo- 


monastery, for which 






doric ; afterwards, 


he collects a fine 






Benedictine monk. 


library of manuscripts. 




Cesaire, St 


Gaul; of wealthy 


Eloquent preacher ; re- 


Latin. 




family; bishop of 


stores the church of 






Aries. 


St. Martin, with col- 
ored glass windows ; 
theological writer. 




Clovis. 


War-chief and king of a 
great band of Franks. 


Seel. 


. . . 


Columba, St. 


Irish ; of noble birth ; 


Founder of monastery 


Irish. 




educated in Ireland ; 


of lona, and of other 






monk at lona. 


monasteries and 
churches ; preacher, 
poet, and missionary 
in Scotland. 




Columbanus, 


Born and educated in 


Missionary to wilder 


Latin. 


Ireland; abbot. 


parts of France and 






Italy, where he founds 








famous monasteries. 




Gall, St. 


Irish monk ; of high 


Missionary to Switzer- 


Latin. 




birth ; educated in 


land, where he founds 






Ireland. 


monastery of St. 
Gall, afterward the 
centre of a town ; 
preacher and orator. 




Giidas. 


Son of a British prince ; 


Historian of the Saxon 


Latin= 


1 


studies in Ireland; 


conquest of Britain. 




monk. 






Gregory of 


Gaul of a patrician 


Author of " Ecclesiasti- 


Latin. 


Tours. 


family ; bishop of 


cal History of 






Tours. 


Franks " ; student of 
classics ; ambassador 
between the various 
rulers of Gaul. 





260 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance. 


Deeds ard Works. 


Language 
used. 


Gregory I., the 


Of wealthy and noble 


Uses his fortune in 


Latin. 


Great. 


Roman family ; high- 


founding monasteries, 






ly educated in rhetoric 


and in charity ; writer 






and law; Benedictine 


of commentaries, 






monk; pope. 


hymns, letters; sup- 
presses heresies ; 
disciplines and organ- 
izes the Church ; adds 
the Gregorian Chant 
to church music, and 
founds a school for 
choristers ; fixes the 
order of processions, 
and of changes of 
garments during 
church service ; sends 
missionaries to Gaul 
and Britain. (See 1.) 




Jordanis. 


Goth; of high birth; 


Author of a Gothic 


Latin. 




bishop. 


history, based on that 
of Cassiodorus. 




Justinian. 


Son of lUyrian peasant ; 


Seel. 


Latin 




nephew of preceding 




and 




emperor ; civil and 




Greek 




military official. 






Procopius. 


Lawyer of Palestine ; 


Geographer and histo- 


Greek 




official under Justinian. 


rian of his own time. 




Theodoric. 


Ostrogoth; of royal 


See 1. 


Latin, 




line ; educated as a 




Gothic 




hostage at Constanti- 








nople ; general of the 








Eastern legions (Os- 








trogothic), who pro- 








claim him king. 






Trebonian. 


Of Asia Minor; lawyer 


Compiler of Justinian 


Latin. 




and government 


Code, etc. (See 1.) 






official. 







THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 261 

b. Men of Seventh Century. 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Worl<s. 


Language 
used. 


Abu-bekr. 


Father-in-law of Mo- 


Begins conquests of 


Arabic. 




hammed; elected the 


Syria and Persia ; col- 






first caliph or succes- 


lects the Koran into 






sor of Mohammed, 


one volume ; adminis- 






and " Commander of 


ters provinces mostly 






the Faithful." 


by native and Greek- 
speaking officials. 




Aidan. 


Irish ; monk from 


Missionary to North um- 


English. 




lona ; bishop of 


bria; founds monas- 






Lindisfarne. 


teries and schools, 
notably that at Lindis- 
farne, near the 
Northumbrian coast. 




Cffidmon. 


Northumbrian cow- 


First Christian English 


English. 




herd. 


poet; sings or para- 
phrases Biblical 
subjects. 




Cuthbert, St. 


Northumbrian ; peasant 


" Apostle of the low- 


English. 




and shepherd ; monk ; 


lands " of England ; 






prior of Lindisfarne. 


ascetic and hermit. 




Eloi, St. 


Gaul ; bishop ; gold- 


Founds schools of gold- 


Latin ; 




smith ; treasurer and 


smiths in connection 


native 




minister of Frankish 


with some of the mon- 


dialects. 




kings. 


asteries ; missionary 
among the Frisians 
(in northern part of 
Holland). 




Isidorus. 


Of magisterial family ; 


Writer on historical, 


Latin. 




bishop of Seville. 


theological, gramma- 
tical, and scientific 
subjects. 




Mohammed. 


Mecca; of noblest 


Founder of Moha3i- 


Arabic. 




Arabian blood, but 


MEDANiSM ; preacher 






poor. 


and teacher ; believed 
by his followers to be 





262 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Name. 


S/>i/j and Circumstance. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 






the inspired author of 








the Koran and the 








greatest prophet of 








God. 




Omar. 


Father-in-law of Mo- 


Preacher and ruler ; 


Arabic- 




hammed; receives the 


divides his time be- 






caliphate by will 


tween preaching to 






from Abu-bekr. 


the people and ad- 
ministering justice 
to them ; Egypt and 
Palestine added to 
the Saracenic empire ; 
provinces adminis- 
tered as under Abu- 
bekr; conquest of 
Syria, and continua- 
tion of that of Persia. 




Othman. 


Son-in-law of Moham- 


Completes conquest of 


Arabic. 




med; elected to 


Persia ; begins that 






caliphate by commit- 


of Africa; provinces 






tee of six, chosen by 


administered as under 






Omar. 


Abu-bekr. 




Theodore. 


Of Tarsus; Greek 


Organizes the English 


Greek, 




monk sent by Pope 


Catliolic Church much 


Latin, 




to be archbishop of 


in its present form ; 


English. 




Canterbury. 


founds a school at 
Canterbury ; teaches 
medicine, astronomy, 
Greek, Latin, arithme- 
tic, divinity. 





c. Men of Eighth Century. 

Contemporaries of Cliarlemagne marked 



*Alcuin. 



English monk of York : 
abbot of St. Martin. 



Writes on philosophy, 
theology ; invited to 
Charlemagne's court 
to be chief of the 
school of the palace. 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 



263 



Name. 



£5cde. 



Benedict, 



Boniface, or 
Winifried. 



Birth and Circumstance. 



Charlemagi 



Charles Martel. 



Northumbrian monk; 
student and teaclier 
in the school of 
Jarrow. 



English ; noble birth 
monk. 



Anglo-Saxon monk ; 
afterward bishop of 
Mayence. 



King of the Franks ; 
son of " Pepin the 
Short." 

Frank ; mayor of the 
palace of the French 
king. 



Deeds and Works. 



Autlior of " Ecclesiasti- 
cal History of Eng- 
land " ; translates Gos- 
pel of St. John into 
English ; Greek and 
Latin scholar ; writer 
of hymns. 

Founds school and 
monastery of Jarrow, 
causing the church to 
be built by French 
workmen in the 
Roman style, and 
adorned with glass 
windows, inserted by 
French glaziers ; 
brings many books 
into England from 
Rome. 

" The Apostle of Ger- 
many," sent by the 
Pope ; founds many 
bishoprics and monas- 
teries, which often 
become towns ; mas- 
sacred by the pagan 
Frisians ; author of 
sermons, letters, and 
theological writings. 

Collects and arranges 
the " Capitularies," 
or the body of preced- 
ing French law. 

See 1. 



Language 
used. 



Latin 
and 
English. 



Latin 
and 
English. 



Latin. 



Latin 
and 
French. 



264 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstance, 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


*Dungal. 


Born and educated in 


Helps Charlemagne 


Latin. 




Ireland. 


reform the calendar ; 
makes astronomical 
annals ; chief teacher 
in school at Paris. 




Cynewiilf. 


Northumbrian bard. 


Composes riddle-songs ; 
writes poems on sub- 
jects connected with 
the life of Christ and 
the saints ; their 
forms show Latin 
influence. 


English. 


^Eginhai'd. 


Frank ; of good birth ; 


Author of Life of 


Latin. 




archchaplain ; super- 


Charlemagne ; annals 






intendent of public 


and letters. 






works, and secretary 








for Charlemagne ; 








abbot in Germany. 






*Haroun al- 


Most famous of the 


Head of a brilliant 


Arabic. 


Raschid. 


caliphs of Bagdad ; 


Oriental court ; sends 






son of former caliph. 


a clock to Charle- 
magne, which is a 
wonder to the court 
by reason of its fine 
mechanism and its 
metal work of brass 
and gold. 




Geber, or Jeber. 


Mesopotamian Arab ; 


Discovered and ana- 


Arabic, 




physician. 


lyzed various chemical 


translat- 






combinations ; called 


ed into 






master of masters by 


English. 






Roger Bacon ; was 








thought to have dis- 








covered the art of 








creating gold. 





THE WEST UNDER BARBAJIIAN CONTROL. 



265 




266 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Note. — During the seventh, or early in the eighth, century appears 
the first manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon ej^ic of Beowulf, — a poem 
recounting the adventures of warriors and sea-farers. The monks in 
France and England now begin to keep Latin chronicles of contempo- 
rary events. 

About the sixth century schools of Greek philosophy are founded 
in Edessa and other Asiatic cities by Syrian Christians. The philoso- 
phy taught is that of Aristotle. 

Damascus, Cordova, Cairo, and Bagdad are made the capitals and 
centres of JNIohammedanism. The two latter cities are pure INIoorish 
foundations. Splendid domed mosques and x^alaces built in all these 
cities. 

Schools are founded at Bagdad in reign of Al-]Mansour in the eighth 
century, where Aristotle and Galen are translated into Syriac; the 
same authors are translated for the use of the schools of Granada and 
Cordova. 

STUDY ON 2 AND 3. 

What is the literary language of Europe ? What is the subject of 
intellectual interest ? Who make the books and direct the thought of 
Europe? What special art does the Church cultivate? What special 
sort of literature? What division of the empire is most fertile in 
great men ? What still marks this division ? AVhat kinds of great- 
ness are lacking in this period? What reason can you find for this? 
Make a list of all the things whicli prove that the Church is the 
civilizing power of Europe during this period. AVhat is the source of 
the civilization which she gives ? What organization is most active in 
this work? What people possess the military and governmental 
genius of Europe during this period? What historic reason for this? 
In whom does this genius culminate ? What new languages appear 
in literature? AVhat does that indicate of the peoples speaking 
them? What marks the religious spirit of the period? How does 
the Church tend to bring the various parts of Europe into unity and 
sympathy ? 

What proofs that the Mohammedans obtained their civilization 
from the Eastern, or Greek Empire? What architectural construction 
did they take ? (See St. Sophia.) Of what great cities were Cairo 
and Bagdad successors ? 



THE WEST UNDER BARBAKIAX CONTROL. 267 

4. Significant Latvs and Customs. 

a. Under Justinian and other Eastern Emperors, 

Tlie Justinian Code Avas composed of twelve books 
written in Greek and Latin, the first one being devoted to 
ecclesiastical matters and opening with the imperial creed 
of the Trinity; the rest consisted of a collection of previous 
Roman law. In its newer portions we find: . . . "What- 
ever the prince wills has the force of law, because the peo- 
ple have yielded to him their own sovereignty." — Church 
lands were still further freed from taxes, and the bishoj) of 
each city was made the inspector of its accounts and of the 
moneys used for the public good in baths, markets, bridges, 
aqueducts. — In all quarrels in the East, Constantinople 
was declared arbiter. 

After the Council of Chalcedon (near Constantinople) 
the Emperor Marcian issued two laws : one forbade the 
future agitation of all questions concerning the nature of 
Christ, and affixed severe penalties to their discussion; 
the other confirmed the conclusions of the Council, and 
declared that no private man could hope to reach so sound 
a conclusion as the Council. This Council also made Rome 
and Constantinople equal seats of episcopal authority and 
the highest of appeal. 

b. Under the Barbarians. 

In Italy. — Theodoric wore the official dress and bore 
and gave the official titles of Rome. He swore in the 
Senate to maintain tlie imperial laws, which Latin coun- 
cillors helped him to interpret and apply. He it was who 
charged the prefect of the city to keep up the " forests of 
stately buildings, the statues which peopled the city, the 
herds of equestrian images." 

In France. — During this period, Romans were judged 



268 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

bj RoiTian, Franks by Frankish, Burgundians by Burgun- 
diaii law, though they niiglit be living on the same territory 
and under the same ruler. Church law, however, was the 
same for all, as were many of the laws of Charlemagne. 

llie first considerable collection of Frankish law was the 
Capitularies 1 of Charlemagne. Of these, 621 were acts of 
civil, and 415 of religious, legislation. These laws imposed 
the death penalty on any Saxon who should refuse baptism, 
return to idolatr}", murder a priest or bishop, offer human 
sacrifice, eat meat in Lent. — Baptism or repentance could 
atone for every crime. — " Not too mau}^ slaves were 
allowed to flee to the monasteries, lest the country estates 
become desolate." — " The king must walk uprightlyo . . . 
If he act with piety, justice, clemency, he deserves the name 
of king ; otherwise, he is not a king, but a tyrant. . . . [He 
is] the defender of the churches, of the servants of God, of 
the widows, of the other poor, of all who are in distress." 

One of the earliest collections of Visigothic law opened 
as follows : — 

" In this volume are contained the laws or decisions of 
equit}^, selected from the Theodosian Code and other 
books. . . . With the aid of God, occupied with the inter- 
ests of our people, we have corrected, after mature delib- 
eration, all that seemed iniquitous in the laws, in such 
manner that, by the labor of the priests and other noble- 
men, all obscurity in the Roman and in our own ancient 
laws is dissipated." 

In Ewjland. — Ethelbert, that king of Kent who was 
converted to Christianity by Augustine, issued the first 
English laws extant ; among them were the following : 
" Property stolen from the Church [shall] be restored 
twelve-fold, that taken from the king but nine-fold." — 

1 Capitularies, " little lieadings," the written summaries of law and 
custom made by early French rulers. 



THE WEST UNDER BAKBAKIAN CONTKOL. 269 

Withred, king of Kent, thus decreed : " For I, Withred, 
an earthly king, stiniuhited by tlie heavenly king, and 
kindled with the zeal of righteousness, have learned from 
the institutes of our forefathers that no layman ought to 
appropriate to himself a church or any of the things which 
to a church belong. And therefore ... we decree, and 
in the name of Almighty God and of all saints, we forbid 
to all kings our successors, and to aldermen, and to all 
laymen, any lordship over churches and over any of their 
possessions." 

c. In the Church. (Extracts from the "Rule of St. Bene- 
dict," generall}^ followed in the monasteries of the West.) 
" Laziness is the enemy of the soul, and consequently the 
brothers should, at certain times, occupy themselves in manual 
labor ; at others, in holy reading. ... If the poverty of the 
place, necessity, or the harvest keep them constantly employed, 
let them not mind that, for they are truly monks if they live by 
manual labor, as our brothers the apostles did ; but let every- 
thing be done with moderation, for the sake of the weak. . . . 
During Lent all shall receive books from the library, which 
they shall read one after another, all through. ... On Sunday 
let all be occupied in reading, except those who are selected for 
various functions. If au^' one be negligent or lazy, so that he 
wishes neither to meditate nor read, let some labor be enjoined 
upon him, so that he may not remain doing nothing. ... If, 
by chance, anything difficult or impossible be imposed upon a 
l)rother, ... let him explain fitly and patiently to his superior 
the reason of the impossibility, not inflamed with pride, not 
resisting, not contradicting. If, after his observation, the prior 
persists in his opinion and his command, let the disciple know 
that it ought to be so, and confiding in the aid of God, let him 
obey. . . . Let no person dare to give or receive without the 
order of the abbot, nor have anything of his own peculiar prop- 
erty', not a book, nor tablets, nor a pen, nor anything whatso- 
ever." " Love the Lord thy God with the whole heart, whole 



270 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

soul, wliole strength, and thy neighbor as th37self. Renounce 
hixuries. Relieve the poor. Clothe the naked. Do no in juries, 
and bear them patiently. When you see anything good in your- 
self, attribute it to God and not to yourselfo" 

Among the ordinances of Gregory the Great are the fol- 
lowing: "We understand that the price paid for corn to the 
peasant subjects of the Church is lowered in times of abund- 
ance ; we desire that they shall always be paid according to the 
current price. We forbid that the farmers shall pay more than 
the rate fixed in their localit}^ . . . Every pagan or Jewish 
slave who desires to become a Christian should be freed at the 

cost of the Church." 

******* 

" AYe have learned also that in some farms of the Church 
there exists a most unjust system, namely, that out of seventy 
bushels, the farmers exact (from their tenants, or serfs) three 
and a half. . . . We wholly detest this custom. . . . Do you 
appoint . . . that they may pay in the whole two bushels in 
seventy ; but that, beyond this, no shameful exaction be made." 

STUDY ON 4. 

What were the sources of law during this time ? What was the 
most powerful influence at work upon the laws ? Among whom was 
this influence strongest? Name the changes evidently due to this 
influence. What form did the government of the empire positively 
assume? Make a list of the powers given to the Church during this 
time. What determined by what law a man should be judged ? 
What would determine it now ? What class of men in the Church 
held the most power? What kinds? AVhat effect had the Church on 
regard for labor ? Through what organization did she work this 
effect? Describe the ideal monk. What faults in human nature 
were attacked by this ideal? 

5. Stories and Extracts Illustrative of JPei'iod in the 
CTi7'istian Empire, 

a. The Founding of Monte Cassino. 

At the command of Benedict, the Goths of Theodoric "armed 
themselves with axes and hatchets, and employed their robust 



THE WEST UNDER BAliBARIAN CONTROL. 271 

strength in rooting out the brushwood and clearing the soil, 
which, since the time of Nero, had again become a wilderness. . . . 
Many 3'oung men of rich and noble families . . . labored with 
the other brethren in the cultivation of the soil and the building 
of the monaster}', and were bound to all the services imposed 
by the rule." 

h. From Sermon of St. Eloi. 

"Do not consult . . . the diviners, or the sorcerers, or the 
enchanters, for any cause, even for illness ; pay no heed to 
omens or to sneezing ; do not be influenced by the singing of 
birds when you hear them in your journeys. . . . Let no Chris- 
tian pay heed to the day he leaves a house, or that upon which 
he returns to it. . . . Let no one seek to invoke the demons, 
such as Neptune, Pluto, Diana, Minerva, or the evil genius. . . . 
Let no one observe the day of Jupiter [Thursday] as a day of 
rest. Let no Christian make vows in the temples, or by the 
side of fountains, or gardens, or stones, or trees." 

c. The Conversion of Clovis. (Gregory of Tours.) 

"The queen did not cease to urge the king to acknowledge 
the true God, and to put away his idols ; but he could in no 
wise be moved to believe on these things until at length, at a 
certain time, a war was set on foot against the Germans ; in 
which war he was compelled to confess what before he had 
denied. For it came to pass that as the two armies were 
fighting, there was great slaughter, and the army of Clovis was 
about to be utterly destro3'ed. Clovis, seeing this, was grieved 
in heart, and moved even to tears, and raising his eyes to 
heaven, said, ' O thou Christ Jesus, whom Clotilda declares to 
be the son of the true God, thou who art said to . . . grant the 
victory to those who put their trust in thee, to thee I make my 
vows. ... If thou grant me the victory over these, mine 
enemies, and if I find in thee that power which those who call 
on thy name declare that they have proven, I will believe on 
thee, and will be baptized in thy name. For I have called upon 
my gods, but I find that they are far from assisting me ; where- 



^^^ STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

fore, I believe that they have no power.' . . . Even while he 
was saying these things, the Germans turned their backs and 
fled. . . . After the victory, the bishop of Rlieims was sent for, 
and preached the gospel to Clovis, who consented to be baptized 
if his people would follow." 

"But as he came into the presence of his folk, their hearts 
were moved by the power of God, so that before he spoke they 



a 








^''''l-^.-t'^' ->''/'" - 



I i r 



£p.?^:f!m 






wm^ 




THE LEGEND OP ST. MARTIN OF TOURS. 

(From a piece of tapestry of the thirteenth century in the Louvre.) 

1. St. Martin shares his cloak with a poor man. 2. Sees in a dream Jesus Christ clad 
with this half of his cloak. 3. The saint's baptism. 4. He brings to life a catechumen, 
who had died without baptism. 5. He recalls to life a slave, who is first represented as 
hung from a gibbet, and afterwards standing on the ground and giving him thanks. 
6. St. Martin is consecrated Bishop of Tours. 7. He evokes the spectre of a pretended 
martyr, and when it appears and avows that it had been executed for its crimes, the 
chapel is demolished. 8. He gives his tunic to a poor man. 9. He brings to life the 
son of a peasant. 10. He drives out the evil spirit from the body of a mad cow. 
11. Seeing on the banks of a river some birds watching to catch fish, he bids them fly 
away. 12. Death of St. Martin. His soul, in the form of a child, is being borne off to 
heaven by two angels. 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROLo 273 

all cried out, ' We cast away our false gods, O righteous king, 
and we are ready to follow the true God ! ' " 

These things are announced to the priest, who, filled with 
great joy, orders the baptistery to be made read}*. The altar is 
decked with richly wrought coverings . . . ; the baptismal font 
stands ready, the incense pours forth, and the lighted candles 
send forth such sweet odor that the whole church is filled with 
heavenly fragrance ; and such grace does God grant to those 
standing by that they think themselves in the midst of the per- 
fumes of Paradise. . . . Therefore, the king, having acknowl- 
edged the omnipotent Godhead of the Trinity, is baptized in the 
name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, anointed with 
the baptismal oil, and sealed with the sign of the cross of Christ. 
More than three thousand of his army are baptized with him. 

d. Osivald, King of Northumberland. 

" ' By reason of his constant habit of praying or giving thanks 
to the Lord, he was wont, wherever he sat, to hold his hands 
upturned on his knees.' As he feasted with Bishop Aidan by 
his side, the thane, or noble of his war-band, whom he had set 
to give alms to the poor at his gate, told him of a multitude that 
still waited fasting without. The king at once bade the untasted 
meat before him to be carried to the poor, and his silver dish to 
be parted piecemeal among them. Aidan seized the royal hand 
and blessed it. ' May this hand,' he cried, ' never grow old.'" 

e. The Abbot cmd the Cart. 

"There was a poor man whose cart had been overthrown 
before the very gate of the king ; many people passed in and 
out, and not only did the}' not lend him any aid, but many . . . 
trod him under foot. . . . When the abbot arrived, he saw the 
impiety which these children of insolence committed, and innne- 
diately descending from his horse, he held his hand out to the 
poor man, and, both together, they raised the cart. Many of 
those present, seeing him all soiled with mud, mocked and 
insulted him, but he cared not, following with humility the 
humble example of his Master," 



274 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

/. The Crowning of Charlemagne. (From contemporary monkish 

chronicles.) 

"And becanse the name of emperor had now ceased among 
the Greeks, and their empire was possessed by a woman, it 
seemed both to Leo the pope himself, and to all the holy fathers 
who were present in the self-same council, as well as to the rest 
of the Christian people, that the}' onght to take to be emperor 
Charles, king of the Franks, who held Rome herself, where the 
Caesars had always been wont to sit, and all the other regions 
which he ruled through Italy and Gaul and Germany ; and 
inasmuch as God had given all these lands into his hand, it 
seemed right that with the help of God, and at the prayer of 
the whole Christian people, he should have the name of emperor 
also. Whose petition King Charles willed not to refuse, but 
submitting himself with all humility to God, and at the prayer 
of the priests, and of the whole Christian people, on the day of 
the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, he took on himself the 
name of emperor, being consecrated by the pope Leo." . . . 
' ' For this also was done by the will of God . . . that the heathen 
might not mock the Christians if the name of emperor should 
have ceased among the Christians." 

From Letters of Alciiin to Charlemagne. 

"In obedience to your exhortation and wise desire, I 
apply myself in serving out to some of my pupils in this 
house [monastery] of Saint Martin the honey of the holy 
writings ; I essay to intoxicate others with the old wine of 
antique studies ; one class I nourish with the fruits of gram- 
matical science ; in the eyes of another, I display the order of 
the stars." . . . 

"I have schools of singers, many of whom are already suffi- 
ciently instructed to be able to teach others. ... I have also 
done in this church what lay in my power, as to copying books. 
... I have roofed the great church of this town, . . . and have 
reconstructed a portion of the walls ; . . . for the priests, I have 
constructed a cloister." 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 275 






1^ 



MOSAIC OP TENTH CENTURY. 
From Church of St. John in Lateran in Rome; it represents Christ giving the spiiitual 
power to Peter with the keys, and the temporal power to Constantino, with the standard. 



STUDY ON 5. 

AVhat effect would the monasteries have on the regard for labor ? 
On the spread of knowledge ? What sorts of useful knowledge would 
be especially favored by them ? What studies were pursued in them V 
What in the Roman Empire and the Roman Church made a strong 
impression on the barbarians, and thus became a source of power over 
them ? What sort of Christians were Clovis and his followers ? How 
did they regard Christianity? What does the sermon of St. Eloi 
indicate about the beliefs of the common people and the influence of 



276 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the Church ? What elements of character entered into the ideal set 
by the Church? Whence did Charlemagne and his contemporaries 
believe his power proceeded? What does the Lateran mosaic (p. 275) 
teach us of the ideas of the time ? If the picture on p. 272 with its 
explanation were all that we possessed to tell us of this age, what 
could we learn from it? 

In General, — Of what is the Church the successor in Europe? 
What are its bonds of union? What good reason for the persecution 
of heresy by popes and emperors ? 

6. Extracts Illustrative of the First Century of Moham- 
inedanism. 

a From the Koran. 

"God, there is no God but he, the living, the eternal. 
Slumber doth not overtake him, neither sleep ; to him belongeth 
all that is in heaven and earth. . . . He knoweth that which is 
past and that which is to come unto them, and they shall not 
comprehend anything of his knowledge, but so far as he 
pleaseth. His throne is extended over heaven and earth, and 
the upholding of both is no burden to him. . . . 

" There is no piety in turning your faces towards the east or 
the west, but he is pious who believeth in God, and the last 
day, and the angels, and the Scriptures, and the prophets ; 
who for love of God disburseth his wealth to his kindred, and 
to the orphans, and the needy, and the wayfarer, and those 
who ask ; . . . who observeth prayer, and payeth the legal alms, 
and who is of those who are faithful to their engagements . . . 
and patient under ills and hardships, and in time of trouble ; 
these are they who are just, and those who fear the Lord. . . . 
Whoso doeth the good works and is a true believer, whether 
male or female, shall be admitted into Paradise. . . . 

"Verily we have revealed unto thee, [O Mohammed], as we 
revealed unto Noah and the prophets after him, and as we 
revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob . . . 
and Jesus and Job and . . . Solomon. . . . 

" They to whom we have given the book of the Koran, and 



THE AVEST UNDER RAllTiARlAN CON^THOL. 



277 




278 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

who read it with its true reading, they believe tlierein ; and 
whoever beheveth not therein, they shall perish. . . . 

" Perform the pilgrimage of Mecca. . . . Make provision for 
your journey ; but the best provision is piety ; and fear me, 
O ye of understanding. It shall be no crime in you, if ye seek an 
increase from 3'our Lord, by trading during the pilgrimage. . . , 

" They will ask thee concerning wine and lots [lottery, gam- 
ing]. Answer, In both there is great sin, and also some 
things of use unto men ; but their sinfulness is greater than 
their use. They will ask thee also, what they shall bestow in 
alms. Answer, What ye have to spare. . . . 

" On the last day, every soul shall find the good which it hath 
wrought, present ; and the evil which it hath wrought, it shall 
wish that between itself and that were a wide distance. . . . 

" What befell them was so ordained. . . . God giveth life and 
causeth to die. . . . Moreover, if ye be slain, or die in defence 
of the religion of God, verily pardon from God, and mercy, is 
better than what they heap together of worldly riches. . . . 

•' Fear God by whom ye beseech one another; and respect 
women who have borne you, for God is watching over you. . . . 
Take in marriage of . . . such . . . women as please you ; two, 
or three, or four, and not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot 
act equitably towards so man}', marry one only. . . . 

" Men shall have the pre-eminence above women, because of 
those advantages wherein God hath caused the one of them to 
excel the other. . . . Honest women are obedient, careful in the 
absence of their husbands, for that God preserveth them, by 
committing them to the care and protection of the men. But 
those whose pervxn-seness ye shall be apprehensive of, rebuke ; 
and remove them into separate apartments and chastise 
them. . . . 

"... Verily those who disbelieve our signs, we will surely 
cast to be broiled in hell fire ; so often as their skins shall be 
well burned, we will give them other skins in exchange, that 
they may taste the sharper torment ; for God is mighty and 
wise. . . . 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 279 

" But for him who (h-cadeth the tribunal of his Lord are pre- 
pared two gardens, pkmted with shady trees. In each of them 
shall be two fountains flowing. In each of them shall there be 
of ever}" fruit two kinds. They shall repose on couches, the 
linings whereof shall be of thick silk interwoven with gold : 
and the fruit of the two gardens shall be near at hand to 
gather .... 

" AYhosoever lighteth for the religion of Grod, whether he be 
slain or be victorious, we will surely give him a great reward. 
And what ails you, that ye fight not for God's true religion, 
and in defence of the weak among men, women, and chil- 
dren. . . . 

" Verily Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, is the apostle of God, 
and his Word, which he conveyed into Mar}', and a spirit pro- 
ceeding from Him. Believe therefore in God, and his apostles, 
and say not. There are three Gods ; forbear this ; it will be 
better for you. God is but one God." 

The prophet strongly enjoined the duty of kindness to slaves. 
". . . He who beats his slave without fault, or slaps him on the 
face, his atonement for this is freeing. — A man who behaves 
ill to his slave will not enter into Paradise." 

b. Ahu-hekr to the Soldiers ivho coyiquered Syria. 

" This is to acquaint you that I intend to send the true 
believers into Syria, to take it out of the hands of the infidels. 
And I would have you know that the fighting for religion is an 
act of obedience to God. . . . 

"When you meet with your enemies, acquit yourselves like 
men, and do not turn your backs ; and if you get the victory, 
kill no little children, nor old people, nor women. Destroy no 
palm-trees, nor do any mischief to cattle, only such as you kill 
to eat. When 30U make any covenant ... be as good as your 
word. As you go on, 3'ou will find some religious persons that 
live retired in monasteries, proposing to themselves to serve 
Gi.d that way : let them alone, and neither kill them nor destroy 
their monasteries." 



280 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

c. Conditions given by Omar at Conquest of Jerusalem. 

"The Christians shall enjo}^ security both of person and 
property ; the safety of their churches shall be, moreover., 
guaranteed, and no interference is to be permitted on the part of 
the Mohammedans with any of their religious exercises, houses, 
or institutions ; provided only, that such churches, or religious 
institutions, shall be open night and day to the inspection of the 
Moslem authorities. . . . No payment shall be exacted from any 
one until after the gathering in of his harvest. Mohammedans 
are to be treated everywhere with the greatest respect; the 
Christians must extend to them the rights of hospitality, rise to 
receive them, and accord them the first place of honor in their 
assemblies. The Christians are to build no new churches, con- 
vents, or otlier religious edifices, either within or without the 
city, or in any other part of the Moslem territory ; they shall 
not teach their children the Koran : but, on the other hand, no 
one shall be prevented from embracing the Mohammedan 
religion." 

d. Omars Style of Life. 

" He rode upon a red camel, with a couple of sacks ; in one 
of which he carried . . . barley, rice, or wheat, sodden and un- 
husked ; the other was full of fruits. Before him he carried a 
very great leather bottle (for water) ; behind him, a large 
wooden platter. Thus furnished and equipped, the caliph trav- 
elled, and when he came to any place where he was to rest all 
night, he never went from it till he had said the morning 
prayer." At one time he had occasion to send ambassadors to 
Constantinople. " The emperor asked them what sort of a 
palace their caliph had ; they said it was made of mud. ' And 
who,' said the emperor, ' are his attendants ? ' ' The beggars 
and poor people.' 'What tapestry does he sit upon?' 'Jus- 
tice and uprightness.' 'And what is his throne?' 'Absti- 
nence and certain knowledge.' 'And what is his treasure?' 
' Trust in God.' " 



THE WEST UNDER BAKUARIAN CONTROL. 281 

STUDY ON 6. 

JNIake a list of the points of ]\Iohaiiiinedaii belief. Of the require- 
jnents of its worship. Of its morality. Note all the points of re- 
semblance you can find between Christianity and Islam. All the 
points of difference. What is the essential point of difference ? How 
is Christianity superior? AVhat faults in Islam? What reason can 
you find in the extracts from the Ivoran for the fighting energy of the 
Saracen ? What was the position of woman among the Mohamme- 
dans ? How was she protected ? What sorts of pleasure and what 
sorts of pain are represented as forming the essence of heaven and 
hell ? 

What strikes you as prominent in the conditions imposed by Omar 
andAbu-bekr? What was their aim in conquest? 

7. Extracts and Facts Illustrative of 3Ioha7n^nedanisin 
in Eighth and Early Ninth Century, 

a. Description of Bagdad in Time of Ilaroun-al-Raschid. 

(Kremer.) 

The city was built with great bricks, and surrounded by a 
wall a hundred and twenty feet high ; at a good distance with- 
out this wall rose a second, guarded by mighty bastions, and 
surrounded by a moat wiiich could be filled with water at pleas- 
ure. The city was entered by four massive iron gates, through 
which could ride horsemen with upright lances, and each of 
which required four men to stir it. On each was a gilded dome, 
where commissioned troops were on constant watch. Within 
the double walls was an open space, surrounded by arcades, 
which served as barracks for the troo[)s of the palace garden. 
Beyond the arcades and another open space and another gate- 
way, stood the palace of the caliph and the chief mosque. 

A hundred feet was fixed for the breadth of the chief, and 
thirty feet for that of the side streets. In the suburbs were 
great tracts of cultivated land and beautiful gardens, watered 
by countless canals from the Tigris and Euphrates. The most 
beautiful of these plantations were full of vines and citron 
trees. 

On the western bank of the Tigris rose a royal castle, tower- 



282 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

ing over all that part of the city with its walls, its balconies, 
and domes. Out of the sea of houses rose countless minarets' 
into the air, among them the famous " green" minaret, covered 
with shining green tiles. Here, too, was the great "green 
dome," a hundred and sixty feet in height. 

On the western bank of the Tigris were palaces, baths, 
mosques, bazaars, and among these splendid buildings lay a 
confused lab3Tinth of the poor houses of the lower classes. 
The bazaars were rich with the wares of Asia, and one was 
especially famous for its costly profusion of Chinese silks. 

The palace of the Caliph was set in the midst of large and 
well-kept gardens, and surrounded by countless courts, open 
halls, balconies, kiosks, all most richly adorned by splendid 
carpets and divans, with gold-embroidered curtains and rich 
vases of gold and silver, or Chinese porcelain. In the gardens 
bloomed the finest plants of Asia ; within the inner chambers 
were richly-clad and handsome slaves, who lived as befitted the 
servants of a prince. 

Our picture would be incomplete without a visit to the quays, 
which stretched for miles on either shore of the river. Whole 
fleets were here at anchor, sea and river boats of all sizes, from 
the Chinese junk to the awkward old Assyrian rafts. There, 
too, were anchored countless ships of war, and between these 
lay the pleasure-boats of the caliphs and the nobles, glittering 
in gold and brilliant colors. 

I). The House of a Wealthy Arahian of Bagdad. (Kremer.) 

His doors were of costly woods, inlaid with ebony and gold ; 
his courtyard was paved with marbles, often laid in mosaic 
patterns, and cooled by an ever-flowing fountain. His halls 
were finished with fine stucco, and the ceilings bright with 
intermingled colors of the arabesque ornament. Finest rugs 
were on the floors and costly Chinese vases stood about the 
rooms. . . . Heavy silken curtains in clear, rich colors hung 

' See picture of St. Sophia ; the slender, spirelike parts of tlie buildmgs 
are minarets. 



THE WEST UNDER BAKUAIMAN CONTltOL. 



288 



before doors and windows, embroidered in gold with inscrip- 
tions and arabesques. Tapestries stiff with gold hung on the 




TYPICAL ARABESQUE ORNAMENT. 
(From the Alhambra.) 



walls, while from the centre of the domed ceiling, hung by mas- 
sive chains such lamps of gold, silver, or costl}' crystal as the 
Greeks were wont to use. 



284 STUDIES IN GENERAL HiSTOIiY. 

c. Haroun-al-Baschid and Mansonr. 

'' One of the intimates of Haronn-al-Rascliid relates that 
one day, being summoned into the Caliph's presence, he found 
him in a very gloomy mood. After a few moments, Haroun 
raised his head, and said, ' Go this moment and take from 
Mansur ten million dirhems, and if he refuse to pay them, bring 
me his head ! If you hesitate and fail to execute my command, 
I swear by the soul of my father that I will decapitate you ! ' 
Salih asked what he was to do in case Mansur paid part at 
once, and gave security for the payment of the rest on the fol- 
lowing day. Haroun answered, ' If this very day he fail to 
pay in ready money, behead him ! Let me hear no more idle 
talk.' Salih felt assured from this that the Caliph was bent on 
taking Mansur's life, and came away in great distress, for the 
person threatened was a friend of his own, and one of the most 
influential persons in Bagdad. However, he went straight to his 
house, and, taking him aside, told him what had happened. 
Mansiir threw himself at Salih's feet, and weeping, said, ' The 
Commander of the Faithful must have resolved to take my life, 
for he knows well enough that I have never had so much 
money, and that I could not collect it in a lifetime ; how, 
then, am I to do so in one day?' " The money was, however, 
raised, and Mansur was saved. He had fallen into this danger 
because Haroun suspected his loyalty, and because he had 
badly treated one of the Caliph's favorites. 

STUDY ON 7. 

Make a list of all the fine and industrial arts known to the Saracens. 
Of the sciences and branches of learning pursued among theni. (See 
also lists of x^eriod.) (3f their occupations. Compare this civilization 
with that of Em'ope at this same time. How is it superior? What 
historical sources for this civilization can you indicate ? What facts 
indicate that such were its sources? To what things are the names 
"damask" and "ir.orocco" applied, and what does this indicate? 
What new forms of construction and of ornament do you see in 
the pictures on pp. 277 and 28*5? What prominent forms mentioned 
in the description of Bagdad? AVhat is there admirable in these 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL^ 285 

forms? AVhat element of beauty seems to have been especially 
admired in ornament ? AYhat relation between the Alhambra orna- 
ment and the fact that the Saracens were commanded by their religion 
strictly to obey the second commandment ? 

What was the Mohammedan form of government? What was the 
relation of Church and State ? What point in the description of Bag- 
dad showed this relation ? 



286 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY, 814-1880. 

A. Early Medicem/ Period: Charlemagne to the Crusades, 814-1095 

B. Middle Mediaeval Period : Crusading, 1095-1215. 

C. Late MedicBval Period : Magna Charta to Columbus, 1215-1492. 

D. Renaissance and Reformation, 1492-1648. 

E. Modern Europe, 1648-1880. 

" The future hides in it " But heard are the voices, 

Gladness and sorrow; Heard are the sages, 

We press still thorow ; The worlds and the ages, — 

Naught that abides in it ' Choose well ; your choice is 

Daunting us, — onward ! Brief and yet endless.' 



" Here eyes do regard you 
In eternity's stillness; 
Here is all fullness, 
Ye brave, to reward you ; 

Work, and despair not." — Goethe. 

"There's a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will." 

— Shakspere. 



A. EAELY MEDI^IVAL PEEIOD, OHAELEMAGITE TO THE 
CRUSADES, 814-^1095. 



Chief original and contemporary autiiorities : The laws 
of the period in each Enropean conntry, and the decrees 
of councils and popes; the chronicles of the monks, espe- 
cially in England and France ; the works of Arabic his- 
torians and poets. 

Chief modern authorities in English : for Europe in 
general, Gibbon, Guizot, Bryce, Lacroix ; for England, 
Stubbs, Green ; for Byzantine Empire, Finlay ; for the 
Church, Milman. 



EAKLY MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 



287 





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288 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



1 

1 

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1 


Absolute administra- 
tors of law in their 
own estates ; consent 
to and arrange mar- 
riage of serfs ; main- 
tain for their use a 
bakery, granary, mill. 

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ladies of the lord's 
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^ 


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s feudal relations 

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1 

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by direct grant 
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tary right 
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grant; do 
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)ns in their variou 

Hold their land 
by grant, or on 
lease from 
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ate lord. 




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and dues of 
their own 
domains. 

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Pay rents and 
feudal dues."*^ 


1 


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their men ; levy 
their own vassals i 
at their own 
pleasure. 

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of their immedi- 
ate ^ lord. 


CO 

1 

CO 

1 


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hereditary owners 
of fiefs, with 
hereditary titles 
of honor. 

Bishops. 

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ops' vassals, free 
tenants, of vari- 
ous and heredi- 
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EARLY MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 291 

c. In England. 

Before William the Conqueror, the organization of Eng- 
land was similar to that of France, with the following 
differences : the great lords and bishops formed a council 
of wise men, or Witenageinot^ with whom the king advised in 
regard to war, to law, and the grants of land he gave from 
time to time ; by this council levies were ordered for war, 
laws were assented to, grants confirmed. These great lords 
and bishops were in England called king's Thanes^ and 
that which was called a fief in France was in England 
named a Manoi\ and to the Seigniorial Court corresponded 
the Manorial Court of England. 

When William the Conqueror entered England, he de-= 
manded from every freeman, irrespective of his immediate 
feudal lord, an oath, to " be faithful to King William within 
England and without, to join him in preserving his lands 
and honor with all fidelity, and to defend him against his 
enemies." In a council held shortly after the Conquest, 
a chronicle tells us that "all the landholders of substance 
in England, whose vassals soever they were . . . became his 
[William's] men, and swore . . . that they would be faith- 
ful to him against all others." 

STUDY ON I. 

What must a man possess in order to hold power during this 
period ? What kinds of power did this possession give ? What sort 
of an aristocracy would thus develop ? In what country is there now 
an example of such an aristocracy? Compare the power of the king 
and the barons. Of the emperor and the pope. Of the emperor and 
the king of Germany. Throughout the feudal organization, what 
does the superior give the inferior ? AVhat does the inferior give the 
superior ? What effect would you expect this system to have on the 
unity and strength of kingdoms? On justice in the administration 
of law? On trade? On manners? On liberty? On equality? AVhat 
was the political nnit of feudalism? What held men together in this 
unit? What class in England seemed to have more power than the 



292 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



same class in France ? What great change introduced b}^ William the 
Conqueror into feudal relations in England? Whose power would 
thus be strengthened ? Who was the " immediate " lord of English- 



men 



What had the emperor by which to maintain his imperial 
power? If one baron did wrong to another, or refused to abide by 







SERFS REOErVING ORDERS PROM THEIR LORD BEFORE GOING TO WORK. 
Interior of fourteenth or fifteenth century ; from a French manuscript of fifteenth century. 

the judgment of his peers, what was the only way left to gain justice? 
What effect would constant foreign warfare have upon the power of 
the king and the unity of the people? Why? Before the time of 
Charlemagne, we noticed that law was personal ; that is, that a man 



EAKLY MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 293 

was judged by the laws of liis people, ^Yhetller Koiiuui, Biirgundian, 
Saxon; — under the feudal system, ^vllat fact detennhies the law by 
wliich lie sliall be judged? 

2. Sumniary of Eve^tts, 814-1095. 

(I . In the Byzantine Empire. 

About 900, the Mag-yars or Pluugarians (Tumiiiaiis) 
attack both east and west; repulsed by the German em- 
l)erors, and foiled by the defences and gold of Constanti- 
nople, they settle in Pannonia; soon after, converted to 
Christianity by the missionaries of Rome, they become 
shepherds and farmers, and thus begin modern Hungary. 

Conti'-.ued quarrels of Constantinople and Rome over 
image-worship and other questions of doctrine and prac- 
tice ; these qturrrels culminate in 1054 in the great 
•• Schism of the Chui-ch," which divides the Christians of 
Europe and Asia into two communions; that of the Greek 
Church, to which the Byzantines and their converts belong, 
and that of the Latin Church, to which the Latin and 
German-speaking peoples adhere. 

The Saracens seize on Sicily; soon after, the Normans 
invade Greece, and wrest Southern Italy from the East ; 
of this, together with Sicily, of which they dispossess the 
Saracens, they form the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. 
Tlie pope confirms the new kingdom, and the Normans 
become his armed allies and defenders (1062). The Turks 
take Asia Minor from the Em[)iie. 

h. In Main? (Eleventh Century.) 

The Spanish Arabs are slowly driven back towards the 

south by the Spanish Christians, and lose Toledo ; the 

Asiatic Arabs are conquered by the Turks, who accept 

1 Islam is applied to the wliole body of Mohammedans and their gen- 
eral status and civilization, as Chn'sUndvni is apphed to tiie peopKs and 
eultus of Ein-opc. 



294 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Mohainmedaiiism as their faith; a third caliphate is 
founded at Cairo. Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem meet 
constant insult, cruelty, and all manner of persecution 
from the Turks. 

c. In Holy lloinun Empire. 

At Charlemagne's deatli, the Empire is divided among 
liis successors ; their dissensions and wars end in roughly 
defining the three kingdoms of Italy, Germany, France. 
At first, the imperial title belongs to the king, now of one 
:ind then another land ; but after Otto the Great 
the rulers of Germany are also kings of Italy 



and emperors of the Holy RoiAIAN Empire, which from 
this time on practically includes Gernuin}" and Italy. 

During this period, Germany suffers on the south-east 
from the Magyars or Hungarians, on the north from the 
Danes or Northmen, on the north-east from Slavs. Against 
the first, the emperors found the Eastern-Mark,^ the begin- 
ning of modern Austria; against the second, the Mark of 
Sleswig ; against the tliird, the North-Mark, the beginning 
of inodern Prussia (througli Brandenburg). Tliese marks 
are given into the charge of the best fighters and com- 
manders among the imperial vassals. (For the division of 
the Empire among its various rulers, see map, pp. 316, 317.) 

In the beginning of Otto's reign, the Dukes of Fran- 
conia, Bavaria, and Lorraine rise against him, but with 
the help of French nobles who are in revolt against their 
own king, he subdues them. The Danes obtain peace on 
condition of the baptism of their king ; the Bohemians, on 
condition of ceasing to persecute Christianity ; the Poles, 
on condition of allowing the founding of a bishopric. — In 



1 " Mark " or " march " means a border state whose defence and govern- 
ment is particularly strengthened in order to make it a bulwark against a 
foreign foe. 



EAKLY MEDIEVAL PEKIOD. 295 

1046, three candidates at once claim the papal chair ; the 
emperor deposes them all, and makes a German bishof) 
pope. 

Fope (rregor}" the Seventh, known also as 
Gregory the Great and as Hildebrand, insists 
on the celibacy of the clergy throughout Chris- 



1073 

TO 
1095. 



tendom ; this causes a dissension amounting to war between 
I^ombard and German prelates, on the one hand, and the 
Italians and Normans supporting Hildebrand, on the other; 
but the pope, with the lielp of the monks, succeeds in mak- 
ing celibacy the rule of the Church. — -The famous quarrel 
over ''lay investiture"^ now occurs between Hildebrand 
and the Emperor Henry IV., king of Germany. The 
emperor claims the right of investiture, as being the theo- 
retical owner of the domains of the bishops, who are in 
their relation to him " lords spiritual," and whose lands 
amount to half the German territory ; the pope claims 
the right because the bishops are Church officials, and 
insists upon it, lest the king use the rich abbey-lands to 
reward his own men. Neither pope nor emperor yield 
the point; the pope writes to Henry, urging him to ''pre- 
fer the honor of Christ to his own, and give full liberty to 
the Church, the Spouse of God " ; he threatens him with 
exconnnunication unless on a fixed day he shall appear in 
Rome to be judged by the pope for all his offences. 
Henry, in answer, calls a council of German prelates, from 
whom he asks the deposition of the pope. They grant it 
" with loud unanimous acclamation " ; the decision is sent 
t(j Rome, where Gregory sits in council in the midst of his 
bishops ; it is addressed, " To the false monk, Hildebrand." 
The pope immediately passes sentence on the emperor: 
" I absolve all Christians from the oaths they have sworn 

^ " Lay investiture " simply means the appointment of Lisliops and 
other prelates to their offices by a layman. 



296 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HLSTOKY. 

or may swear to him, and forbid all obedience to him as 
king." The Bishop of Utrecht, on the king's behalf, ex- 
comnjunicates the pope, but soon and suddenly dies. 
This death, with other causes, turn men more and more 
against the excomnuinicated emperor ; all who have any 
talk or dealing with him are themselves declared excom- 
numicated. The pope commands the Germans to elect a 
new emperor if Henry do not at once repent ; the Imper- 
ial Diet accordingly meets to choose '' a man to go before 
them, and to wage the war of the Lord." Henry, desir- 
ous of saving his kingdom, goes across the Alps in the 
dead of winter to seek the forgiveness of Hildebrand 
(1077). The pope is at Canossa, a strong fortress of 
the Apennines ; in its outer courtyard, barefoot, in the 
white robes of a penitent, for three days and nights the 
emperor awaits the pleasure of Gregory. Even this grace 
is not given until the emperor promises to confess himself 
"unworthy of tlm ro3^al name and dignity." At last, 
admitted to the papal presence, he is required to attend 
the pope where and when Hildebrand desires, to answer the 
charges of his people ; if cleared, the pope will restore him 
to imperial power ; if not, Henry is to remain a private man. 

In 1095 the Council of Clermont is called by Pope 
Urban II., and a "- Holy War," or " Ckusade," of Chris- 
tian Europe is declared against the Turks who hold Christ's 
Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and who greatly persecute 
tlie pilgrims who come from all parts of Europe to visit 
this sacred place, and to expiate tlieir sins by tliis long 
and dangerous journey. 

(For Schism of the Church, see above.) 

STUDY ON 2, a, b, c. 

What in the history and circumstances of the East and the West 
have prepared the way for the " Schisni of the Cliurch " ? Why is it 



KAIILY .MKDLKVAI. PKKloD. 297 

useless for llie pope fo ojipose tliis ''Sdiisiii "? How does ihc liistorv 
of the Turks reseinl)le that of the Teutons? 

What events strengthen and form the German frontier? What 
fact in their origin accounts for the long succession of strong rulei-s 
in Austria and Prussia? In order ijfchat new peoples may enter the 
empire, what is necessary? What relation between this fact and the 
imperial organization ? Why does the Holy Eoman Empire practically^ 
include only Germany and Italy? What or who has the chief power 
in this empire? Prove it. Some time ago Bisniarck said, "We 
will not go to Canossa"; explain the reference. On what does 
the papal power rest ? What are its weapons? On what the imperial? 
What is shown by the imperial title in regard to the imperial office? 
AVhat ideal does Gregory VII. insist upon in the Church? What does 
he make the central power in its organization? 

In calling the peoples of Europe to a crusade, what does Pope 
Urban assume in regard to their comparative allegiance to himself 
and their own princes? 

(J. In France. 

The kings are often fighting against tlie counts of 
Flanders, the dukes of Burgundy, the princes of Brittany 
and Aquitaine. In 877 the king, needing help in his wars, 
grants his vassals hereditary possession of their lands; 
the nobles compel his successor to confirm the grant, and 
at the death of the latter, divide the realm between his 
two sons. 

In the early ninth century, Northmen (Normans) in- 
vade and ravage France ; in company with the Duke of 
Lorraine, they besiege Paris ; deserted by their king, the 
Parisians choose their heroic defender, the Count of Paris, 
as their monarch. The great nobles build castles to de- 
fend themselves and their folk against the invaders ; the 
Normans continue to harry the land ; at last, in the tenth 
century, the Frankisli king sends the archbishop of Rouen 
to tell their famous Avar-chief Hrolf (Rollo) that if he 
will become a Cliristian, acknowledge the king of France 
his lord, and live in peace, he shall have the dukedom of 



298 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Normandy as his liereclitaiy possession. Hrolf accepts the 
offer, and his followers settle Normand3^ 

In 987, the line of Charlemagne having come to an end 
in the person of an inefficient monarch, the nobles choose 
Hugh Capet as their king, and from him all the succeed- 
ing kings of France have sprung. This election is con- 
firmed by the Archbishop of Rheims. In the time of 
Hugh, there are fifty-five feudal units in France. In the 
eleventh century the clergy declare the "Truce of God," 
or a cessation of quarrels and warfare from Wednesday 
night to Monday morning of every week. 

e. In England. 

At 800 there are still seven different English kingdoms, 
•often hostile, sometimes partially united, but always fight- 
ing Picts and Scots to the north, and Welsh to the west ; 
but early in the ninth century, Ecgbehrt, king of the West- 
Saxons, becomes overlord of all the other kings, forming 
the so-called " Saxon Heptarchy " ; under him and his 
successors the Northmen constantly invade and harry 
England, and settle in Northumbria, East Anglia, and 
parts of Mercia. 

Under Alfred the Great the struggle of 
Englishmen and Northmen still continues; Al- 
fred builds a fleet, and ends invasion for a time ; 



871 

TO 
1066. 



issues a body of English law, founds new monasteries, has 
the monastery-schools teach all who wish to attend them, 
reading, writing, and theology ; but instruction in English 
is to precede that in Latin. 

After his death border-wars with Picts, Scots, and 
Welsh continue, as well as constant struggle with Danes, 
ending at 1017 in the elevation of Danish monarchs to 
the English throne. In 1042 the English kings are 
restored, and Edward the Confessor becomes king under 



EARLY MEDL.E VA L IM^: lUOl ). 



299 



1(16(5. 



the leadership of powerful nobles, notably Earl Godwin, 
whose daughter he marries. 

William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, r 
claims a right to the English throne on a promise i 
of his cousin, Ed- 
ward the Confessor; 
the pope declares 
in his favor, and en- 
joins him to bring 
England into due 
obedience to the 
Papacy j he leads 
a Norman army 
into England, and 
at the battle of Sen- 
lac, or Hastings, 
makes good his 
chiim. The Eng- 
lish king is support- 
ed by his earls ; but 
by threatening their 
domains, and forc- 
ing them to desert 

their monarch Wil- I- Kent. II. Sussex. in.Weesex. IV. Essex, 
men monaion, >V 11 y ^ast Anglia. VI. Merda. \'1I. :<orthuiubria, 
liam gains London, chief seat of Danish settlement. 

and the English nobles choose him king. 




ENGLAND 


about 600 A.D. 






or Bri+ons. 

s or.Angles, Saxons, J 


ales. 


1 1 — Teu+or 









STUDY ON 2,a-e. 

What case in France parallels the entrance of the Hungarians into 
the European connnonwealth ? Xanie two points of resemblance. 
What facts can you find in c, d, and e to confirni your statements in 
regard to the effects of feudalism ? Name two things shown by the 
"Truce of God." From what great external disturbance does the 
whole of civilized Europe suffer during this period? What marlc 
distinguishes civilized from uncivilized Europe? 



300 



8TUDTES IN GENE HAL HISTORY 



Kame the modern countries or provinces ot" Europe Avhicli begin 
their individual existence during this period. At whose expense does 
eacli begin it? What organization is steadily increasing its power in 
Europe? What sorts of power? Give two proofs. In the study of 
organization, we noted that the lords and bishops apparently had 
more power in England than on the continent ; what events would neu- 
tralize this power, and make the king stronger and England more 
united? What races of people are mingled at the close of this period 
in France? In England? In Italy? In Spain? In the Byzantine 
Empire ? 

In what places and in what ways do Mohammedans and Christians 
come into contact in this period? What facts would make the ^\ho^' 
jonrney to Jerusalem a dangerous one? Contrast the journey then 
and the same journey now. 

3. List of Great Names of the Period. 

o. Of the Ninth Centiiry. 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Deeds and Worfis. 


Language 
used. 


Alfred the 


English ; king of Eng- 


Translator of History 


English. 


Great. 


land. 


of Orosius, Boethius' 
Consolation of Phil- 
osophy, and Bede's 
Ecclesiastical His- 
tory ; establishes a 
school at liis court 
for young nobles. 
(See 2 e.) 




Albumazar. 


Arabian, of Turkestan. 


Writes on astronomy. 


Arabic. 


Al Mamun. 


Son of Haroun-al- 


Causes to be translated 


Arabic. 




Rashid ; caliph of 


into Arabic the manu- 






Bagdad. 


scripts sent by the 
Greek emperor to his 
father; sends a com- 
mission to Cyprus for 
books ; erects two 
observatories, founds 
colleges, has a degree 





EAIJLY :MEI)ryEVAT. I'EHIOD. 



301 



Name. 


Bitth and Circumstances. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 






of tlie earth meas- 








ured ; calls Syrian 








and Egyptian physi- 








cians to his court ; 








author of theological 








and critical works ; 








causes the great work 








of Ptolemy on astron- 








omy and geometry to 








be translated from 








Greek into Arabic; 








makes very accurate 








astronomical tables. 




Asser. 


Welsh monk, afterward 


Author of Life of King 


Latin. 




bishoj). 


Alfred(?) ; assists in 
the king's literary 
reforms. 




Hincmar. 


Of noble French fami- 


Author of theological 


Latin. 




ly; monk; adviser of 


and political writings ; 






the French court; 


defends the doctrine 






archbishop of Rheims. 


of "Free Will"; 
causes a splendid 
shrine in silverwork, 
adorned with statu- 
ettes, to be made in 
his church. 




John, called 


Irish layman ; is said 


AVrites on philosophic 


Latin 


the Scot or 


to have travelled in 


and theological sub- 




Erigena. 


the East ; head of 


jects; defends abso- 






palace school of 


lute freedom of the 






Frankish kings. 


will; is considered 
heretical; shows ten- 
dencies toward the 
Platonic philosophy ; 
makes translations 
from the Greek. 





302 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOHY. 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 


Uazi 


, orKliazes. 


Arab doctor, from 


Author of works on 


Arabic, 






Khorassan. 


medicine and chemis- 
try ; director of lios- 
pital at Bagdad ; 
seeks for the " Water 
of Life " ; his medi- 
cal works largely 
founded on, or bor- 
rowed from, Galen 
and Hippocrates. 


trans- 
lated 
into 
Latin. 



h. Of the Tenth Century. 



Albategni, 


Arab of Mesopotamia ; 


Has charge of an astro- 


Arabic, 


" Arabian 


worked at Rakka 


nomical observatory 


trans- 


Ptolemy." 


and at Antioch. 


at Rakka, near the 


lated 






Euphrates ; advances 


for 






the knowledge of 


Europe 






astronomy beyond 


in IBth 






previous observers, 


cen- 






including Ptolemy, 


tury. 






whom he diligently 








studied. 




Diuibtan, St. 


Of noble Saxon fami- 


Reforms English 


Latin. 




ly; hermit; King 


monasteries on the 






Edgar's prime min- 


basis of Benedictine 






ister, and archbishop 


rule ; forbids the 






of Canterbury. 


marriage of the clergy. 




( xerbert 


French shepherd-ljoy ; 


Studies mathematics. 


Latin. 


(Sylvester II.). 


monk ; archbishop of 


astronomy, medicine, 






Rheims ; teacher of 


mechanics with the 






a French king and 


Spanish Arabs ; brings 






German emperor; 


the Arabic numerals 






pope. 


into France ; famous 
mechanic ; first ap- 
plies weight as a mo- 





EAiiLV .MHDLKVAl. PKlMoD. 



308 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Deeds and Worfis. 


Language 
used. 






tor power to clocks ; 








establishes a work- 








shop for the manufac- 








ture of organs, in the 








monastery of which 








he is abbot; is thought 








a magician ; autlior of 








letters and of philo- 








sophical, mathemati- 








cal, and ecclesiastical 








works. 




Hugh Capet. 


Son of Duke of France. 


Founder of French 
monarchy. (See 2.) 


French 


Otto I. (Otho), 


Son of the Saxon duke ; 


Establishes relation of 


Ger- 


the Great. 


king of Germany and 


Germany to Holy 


man. 




emperor. 


Roman Empire. ( See 

2 ) 




Rollo (Hrolf). 


Xorwc'Lii.T.i pirate. 


Conqueror and first 
duke of Normandy. 

(See 2.) 


* * * 



Names of Eleventh Century. 



Alljucasis. 


Arab of Cordova; 


Writes on anatomy and 


Arabic, 




physician. 


physiology; invents 


trans- 






new surgical instru- 


lated 






ments and operations. 


into 
Latin. 


Alhazen. 


Arab of Bassorah (near 


Makes important dis- 


Arabic. 




ancient Babylon) ; 


coveries in optics ; 






teaches and studies 


thorough student of 






in Cairo. 


Ptolemy. 




Anselm. 


Italian of Piedmont ; 


Scholastic, — that is, he 


Latin. 




of noble, wealthy 


tries to make the 






family ; studies in 


truths of religion 






Norman monastery ; 


clear to the reason ; 





304 



STUDIES IN gf:neral history. 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Deeds and Works. 


Language 
used. 




archbishop of Can- 


writes on transubstan- 






terbury. 


tiation;! opposes 
nominalism;^ makes 
his monastery a fa- 
mous seat of learning. 




Avicenna, 


Persian ; Mohammedan. 


Doctor in several 


Arabic. 


"Prince of 




Asiatic courts ; writes 




Doctors." 




a medical encyclo- 
pedia which becomes 
the basis of medical 
science in Europe for 








six or seven centuries ; 
travels through the 
East to find new 
medicines. 




Cid(RuyDiaz). 


Of noble Spanish birth ; 


Famous Christian 


Span- 




warrior. 


champion in the wars 
of the Spaniard and 
the Moor ; afterward 
a "free lance," fight- 
ing with his followers, 
now for one and now 
another prince, Mos- 
lem or Christian ; 


ish. 



1 Trav substantiation is the doctrine which teaches that the bread and 
wine of the Holy Communion are by a miracle turned into the living body 
and blood of Chi'ist (^Real Presence). 

2 NominaJism teaches that general terms are but abstractions of the 
mind, simple names ; while particular objects and actions alone possess 
reality ; thus virtue is but a iiame used for convenience to group togetlier 
individual virtuous actions, which are realities. The Realists, on the other 
hand, of whom Anselm was greatest, insisted that such general terms 
named real essences, and that virtue, for instance, existed as an actual 
substance, quite apart from any individual action. Since the Nominalists 
gave great prominence to the separate and real existence of the three 
persons of the Trinity, thus tending toward polytheistic views, their doc- 
trines were condemned as heretical. 



EAKLY MEDIAEVAL PEKIOD. 



80i 



Name. 


Birth and Circumstances. 


Deeds and Wor/<s. 


Language 
used. 






after his death be- 








comes the hero of 








many stories and 








poems. 




Robert 


Younger son of a petty 


Conqueror of Southern 


Nor- 


Guisccird 


Norman baron. 


Italy and Sicily. 


man- 


(Wisc.ird). 




(See 2.) 


French. 


Hildebrand, 


Son of a carpenter ; 


See 2 c. 


Latin. 


Gregory VII. 


afterwards pope. 






Lanfranc, 


Italian of governing 


Writes on transubstan- 


Latm. 


. 


class ; studies at 


tiation; defends the 






Paris ; archbishop of 


" real presence." 






Canterbury. 






Urban II. 


French ; monk , cardi- 


Orator ; proclaims the 


Latin ; 




nal-bishop; pope. 


first crusade. 


French. 


William the 


Duke of Normandy. 


See 2 e. 


Nor- 


Conqueror. 






man- 
French. 


William of 


Norman ; monk. 


Author of History of 


Latin. 


Jumieges. 




the Normans. 




William of 


Norman ; companion of 


Author of Life of 


Latin. 


Poitiers. 


William the Con- 


William the 






queror; soldier and 


Conqueror. 






chaplain. 







306 



STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTOrvY. 




03 

3 



EARLY 31KUI.i:VAL rEKIOD. 



307 




DETAIL OF DUCAL PALACE. VENICE. 



308 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Famous Foundations and Works of the 2'ime, not named in 

the Lists. 

Ducal palace and church of St> Mark's built at Venice, 
by architects and artists from Constantinople, under direc- 
tion of the doge, or tlie chief magistrate of the Venetian 
republic. — Toward the tenth century cotton or linen paper 
is brought into Europe from Greece by the Venetians. 
— Cathedral of Pisa, with its leaning bell-tower, built; 
many Greek fragments inserted. — Medical schools eslab 




FACADE OF DUCAL PilLACE. VENICE 



lished at Salerno and Monte Cassino, the former being 
founded by an Italian jnipil of Avicenna, who had spent 
thirty-nine years in the East. 

German organ-makers very famous ; an organ with key 
board invented towards the close of the period. — Hospitals! 
and other houses of relief for the unfortunate founded inj 
the eleventh century, under encouragement of the empe- 
ror, in various parts of Germany. 



EAKLY MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 309 

English homilies are collected and preserved by Alfred 
the Great. — The English annals are more regularly kept 
by the monks of Winchester and Worcester. — Medical 
recipes and lists of plants and animals translated from 
Greek and Latin into English. — Survey of England is 
made and recorded in Doynenday Book by William the 
Conqueror. 

French annals regularly kept by the monks. — Manu- 
factures of tapestry for church decoration established at 
several French monasteries ; the famous Bayeux tapestry^ 
representing the Battle of Hastings, executed under direc- 
tion of Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror. — Beauti- 
ful church in Caen built by William the Conqueror, in 
gratitude for his victory at Hastings. 

The Pseudo-Isidorean, or False Decretals, appear in 
the ninth century, a corrupt and unreliable collection 
of canon law made by a French ecclesiastic, but never- 
theless accepted by the Church for several centuries ; 
their general tendency is to strengthen the power of the 
pope. 

In Cairo, Egypt, fine mosques are built, and a library 
established of 100,000 volumes, which are freely lent out 
to the citizens. — In Bagdad, an observatory is erected 
and a college founded, which upwards of 6000 students 
attend. — In Spain, the Arabs have as many as eighty col- 
leges and seventy public libraries. 

STUDY ON 3. 

What influence is felt by the west of Europe during this period ? 
^Vhat are the centres of intellectual impulse? What countries are 
beginning to have an independent intellectual civilization ? What fact 
or facts mark this independence ? Among whom is this civilization 
most advanced ? What directions does it take ? Proofs. What traces 
of secularization appear in the Church ? Of revolt against her ? (Cf. 
2.) Wliat proofs that she is still the great intellectual and civilizing 



310 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOllY. 

power of the period? That lier spirit is essentially democratic? How 
is she still civilizing Europe ? AVhat reason is there in the events of 
this period for its small amount of literary and artistic production ? 
What race produces the warriors and conquerors of the ej)och? AVhat 
race produces the scientific men? AVhat historic reason can you give 
for this latter fact ? AVhat reason can you give for the former? AA^hat 
can you prove one great source of INIoorish civilization to liave been ? 
What influences do you see embodied in St. ]\Iark's ? In the ducal 
palace? AVliat do you find beautiful, and what characteristic or 
original, in each of these buildings ? 

4, Ejctracts and Stories Illustrative of European Life 
of the Period, 

(t. The Pope and the Juri'j of BnUjaria. 

In the ninth century, Bulgaria w^as eouverted, througli the 
influence of a Christian princess, whose husband wanted her 
God on his side in war. His subjects, however, revolted in 
favor of the old religion, and the king took cruel vengeance 
on them; thereupon, the pope writes him that he ''is now 
under tlie rule of a more merciful God, to wdiom such wide- 
s[)read slaughter is not pleasing." Apostates from the faith are 
to receive no toleration, but God is to judge those who are with- 
out the Church. The pope commands him no longer to use the 
old national sign of the horsetail, but the cross, when he goes 
forth to battle ; and instead of using enchantments, songs, 
and auguries before a fight, his soldiers are to go to church, 
confess, perform good acts, such as opening prisons, giving to 
the poor, and freeing slaves. He forbids polygamy, and advises 
that the king allow his wife to eat with him. 

b. Biirlitnotli's Death i)i a Battle of the English atjaiiist the 
Danes (01)1). 

liyrhtnoth, the Saxon, brought his force into l)attle-array, 
and dismounting, took his place among his thanes. On the 
oi)posite shore of the river stood the herald of the Viking-Danes, 
who spoke with strong and threatening voice : "'Active sea- 



EAKLY MEDLEVAL PEIUOD. 311 

men send me to thee; tlie>^ bid me say to thee, that thou must 
quickly send rings for safety ; and it is better for you that ye 
buy off this spear-rusli with tribute than that we sliare such 
liard tight. If thou wlio art the richest here dost decide that 
thou wilt redeem thy people, wilt give the seamen money at 
their own prizing, in exchange for peace, then we will enter our 
ships with the treasures, go afloat, and keei) peace with you.' 
Byrhtnoth held fast his shield, swung his slender ash aloft, and 
answered w^ith scorn and derision: ' Hearest thou, seafarer, 
what this folk saith? They will give you spears for tribute, 
the poisonous lance-point, and the old sword, war-trappings 
thtit are not good for you in battle. Messenger of the water- 
men, announce again, say to thy people w^arlike words : A noble 
earl stands here w4tli his band, who w^ill protect this inheritance, 
^Ethelred's my prince's country, folk and lands.' . . . Then 
the time was come when those consecrated to death should fall ; 
. . . spears flew from the hands ; the bow was busy ; the shield 
received the point ; bitter was the rage of battle ; warriors fell. 
On both sides lay the young fighters." Byrhtnoth himself was 
sorely wounded. " But the gray battle-hero still cheered on the 
youths ; his feet refused to serve him ; he looked toward heaven 
and said : ' I thank Thee, Ruler of Peoples, for all the joys that 
I have had in the world. Now, mild Creator, I have most need 
that thou grant my spirit good, that my soul . . . may pass wnth 
peace into thy power.' . . . Then the heathen struck him down. 
. . . ultlthelred's earl, the i)eople's prince, had fallen ; all of his 
kindred saw' that their lord hv}^ slain. The proud warriors 
rushed up, Avilled either to avenge the dear one or to yield their 
lives. iElfric's son . . . exhorted them. He said : ' Never 
shall the thanes reproach nie among the people, that I would 
desert this host, and seek my country, now that my prince lies 
slain in battle. That is ni}' greatest grief : he was both my 
kinsman and my lord.' Then he strode forward, thinking of 
])loo(l-veugeance. . . . Swinging his lance, he bade all heroes 
avenge . . . Byrhtnoth: ' Never may he hesitate who thinketh 
to avenge his lord in the peoi)le, nor care for his life.' . . . 



312 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOKY. 

The ki-Qsmen began a hard fight ; they prayed God it might 
be granted them to avenge their kin and chief, and to work 
slaughter among their enemies. . . . Byrlitwold, the aged com- 
rade, spoke as he grasped fast his shield and shook his ash : . . . 
' Courage should be the greater, the more our forces lessen ; 
here lieth our prince cut down, the brave one, slain in the dust. 
... I am old in days ; I will not go away, but I think to lie 
by my lord's side ; I will lie by such a beloved warrior.' " 

c. From Anselm. 

"Whether that is true which the universal Church believes 
with the heart and confesses with the mouth, no Christian can 
be permitted to place in question ; but, while holding fast to it 
without doubting, and loving and living for this faith, he may 
and should search in humility for the grounds of its truth. If he 
is able to add to this faith, intelligence, let him thank God ; if 
not, let him not turn against his faith, but bow his head and 
worship." 

d. From John Scotus, or Erigena. 

"Authority is derived from reason, and not reason from; 
authority, and authorit}^ which is not acknowledged by reason 
seems valueless. . . . We should not allege the opinions of thej 
holy fathers, . . . unless it be necessary thereby to strengthen' 
arguments in the eyes of men, who, unskilful in reasoning, 
yield rather to authority than to reason. ... I am not so fear-j 
ful of authority, and I do not so dread the rage of minds of] 
small intelligence as to hesitate to proclaim aloud the things i 
Avhich reason clearly. unfolds." 

******* 

"What, then, is the object of philosophy, but to set forth the 
rules af true religion, whereby we rationally seek and humbly; 
adore God, the first cause and sovereign of all things? Fromi 
thence it follows that true philosophy is true religion, and con- 
versely, that true religion is true philosophy." 



EARLY MEDl/EVAL PKIMOI). 813 

<\ Letter from, the Pope to the French King ronceriiiny /Scotus 

Erigena. 

" It has been reported to our apostleship that a certain John, 
of Scotch origin, has hitely transkitecVinto Latin the work which 
the blessed Dionysius wrote in the Greek language. . . . This 
I)ook ought to have been sent to us according to custom, and 
Mpproved by our judgment ; the more so, that this John . . . has 
not always, it is everywhere said, been sound in his views upon 
certain subjects. We recommend, therefore, very strongly, 
that you cause the said John to appear before our apostleship, 
or, at least, that you do not permit him any longer to reside 
at Paris in the school of which he is stated for a long time to 
iiave l:>een the chief, in order that he may no longer mingle his 
tares with the wheat of the holy word ; giving poison to those 
who seek for bread." 

/. From Orden'cus Vitalis, on the State of Normandy^ a.d. 1094. 

"At this time, sharp hostilities took place between AVilham 
de Breteuil and Ascelin Goel [two powerful Norman barons] ; 
. . . there was a great feud between them, and each tried to 
injure the other. 

" In the month of February, Ascelin called to his aid Richard 
de Montfort and the retainers of King Philip, and engaging in 
battle with William . . . defeated him and made him a captive. 
. . . Elated with the victory, he became exceedingly arrogant, 
and cruelly tormented . . . his captives. He kept them in close 
confinement ill his castle, . . . and often, in the severest weather, 
. . . exposed them in their shirts, well soaked in water, at a 
window in the highest stage of the tower to the blasts of the 
north or south winds, until their only covering was frozen into 
a sheet of ice around their bodies. At length, by the interfer- 
ence of friends, peace was concluded, and William was let out 
of prison ; . . . but the peace was of short duration. 

"The year following, William . . . renewed his hostilities, 
and established ... a garrison in the convent of monks, which 



ol4 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

Robert d'lvri had founded in honor of tlie Virgin Mary. Upon 
this, Goel, who lield the castle, led a l)od3" of troo[)s to the 
convent. . . . WilHam de Breteuil made his escape with 
more difficult}*, and ... at length engaged to pa}- Philip, 
king of France, seven hundred livres, as well as large sums to 
Robert, duke of Normandy, ... if they would faithfully succor 
him. 

"In consequence, during Lent, the king of France and the 
duke of Normandy laid siege to Breval. . . . The priests and 
their parishioners brought their banners, and the abbots, assem- 
bling their vassals, joined the besieging array. . . . Goel was a 
most desperate freebooter, daring and crafty, and a violater of 
churches . . . who till that time had been used to laugh at kings 
and dukes in his secure retreat. ... He had noble and brave 
kinsmen, by whose aid he had fortified the castle of Breteuil 
. . . and with their courage and succour he had manfully sus- 
tained the burden of such frequent hostilities. But now finding 
that so many great and valiant princes were firmly leagued 
against Inm, he sued for peace." 



STUDY ON 4. 

AVhat changes in the direction of civilization does Christianity 
encourage in Bulgaria ? ^Vhat is evidently the aim of Danish invasion 
as shown in h ? What does this fact indicate incidentally of the com- 
parative prosperity of England just before the invasion ? What spirit 
shown by Byrhtnoth's answer to the Danes ? What feeling or senti- 
ment? What do we know of Byrhtnoth's religious belief? Of his 
religious feeling? What sentiment shown by his followers? What 
barbarian organization appears in this battle? What spirit shown 1)y 
Byrhtwold? Make a list of the English virtues displayed in tliis 
story. 

What seems to be the ahn of Erigena? What his spirit? What 
difference between his attitude and that of Anselm? What resem- 
blance ? What right does the pope claim in regard to the thought of 
Europe ? What harm can heresy do to the Church ? What conclusions 
previously made in regard to the feudal system are confirmed by the 
chronicle of Ordericus Yitalis ? 



EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 315 

5. Facts and Stories Illustrative of Islam during this 

Period, 

a. The Greek Embassy to Bagdad. 

"In the beginning of . . . 917, two ambassadors from the 
Greek emperor . . . arrived in Bagdad on a mission to its 
caliph, bringing an abundance of costly presents. . . . The 
caliph, having appointed a day on which he would receive them, 
ordered that the courts and passages and avenues of his palace 
should be filled with armed men, and that all the apartments 
should be furnished with the utmost magnificence. A hundred 
and sixty thousand armed soldiers were arranged in ranks in 
the approach to the palace ; next to these were the pages of 
the closets, and chief eunuchs, clad in silk and with belts set 
with jewels, in number seven thousand, — four thousand white, 
and three thousand black, — besides seven hundred chamber- 
lains ; and beautifully ornamented boats of various kinds were 
seen floating on the Tigris hard by. The two ambassadors 
passed first by the palace of the chief chamberlain, and, aston- 
ished at the splendid ornaments and pages and arms which they 
there beheld, imagined that this was the palace of the caliph. 
But what they had seen here was eclipsed by what they beheld 
in the latter, where the}^ were amazed by the sight of thirty- 
eight thousand pieces of tapestry of gold-embroidered silk 
brocade, and twenty-two thousand magnificent carpets. Here, 
also, were two menageries of beasts, by nature wild, but tamed 
by art, and eating from the hands of men : among them a hun- 
dred lions, each with its keeper. They then entered the palace 
of the Tree, enclosing a pond from which rose the Tree : this 
had eighteen branches, with artificial leaves of various colors, 
and with birds of gold and silver [or gilt and silvered] of every 
kind and size perched upon its branches, so constructed that 
each of them sang. Thence they passed into the garden, in 
which were furniture and utensils not to be enumerated ; in the 
passages leading to it were suspended ten thousand gilt coats of 
mail. Being at length conducted before the caliph himself, 
they found him seated on a couch of ebony, inlaid with gold 



318 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

and silver, to the right of which were hung nine necklaces of 
jewels, and the like to the left, the jewels of which outshone 
the light of day." 

b. A Present made to a /Spaiiish Caliph. 

In 937, a Spanish caliph received as a gift from a wealthy 
subject hundreds of pounds of coined and virgin gold ; Indian 
aloes and aloe-wood of the finest quality ; camphor, amber, and 
musk ; thirty pieces of silk, painted and embroidered with gold ; 
ten long mantles, lined with marten's fur, from Khorassan ; a 
hundred sable-skins ; raw and spun silk, woolen carpets and 
rugs ; Arabian horses and suits of armor for men and horses ; 
male and female slaves, the latter adorned with jewels, and hav- 
ing various musical instruments on which they could perform. 

STUDY ON 5. 

Make a list of the industries and arts that must have been known 
at Bagdad in 917. Compare the visit of the Greek ambassadors to 
Omar (p. 280), with their visit to this Caliph ; what great change has 
occurred ? With what countries must the Moors of Spain have had 
some commerce ? From 5, and tlie Mohammedan names and works 
in 3, what adjectives will you apply to the civilization of Islam ? 



B. STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 

Chief contemporary authorities: Monkish chroniclers, 
such as Ordericus Vitalis ; soldier chroniclers, such as 
Joinville ; law^s of the period, canon and secular. 

Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Same 
as in preceding period: special for crusades, Michaud, 
Sybeli Cox. 

Questions on Map. — Compare the size of the divisions of Europe 
with the size of the modern divisions. What cause can you give for 
their number and comparatively small size at the opening of the 
twelfth century ? What countries of Europe have positive natural 
boundaries? Which countries are badly defined by nature, and in 
which directioiis? Which countries will most easily become settled 
units, and why ? 



STIDV ON ('KUSAI)lN(i IMOlilol). :U9 

1. Cfn'onoIo{/h'((/ Sii innia I'lj o/ Ltadimj I'^.rcnts^ 

a. In (ji'm'tuih 

First crusade (see p. iJlHi) preaclied every- 
where by the elergy iiiul bj' special emissaries of 
the pope, notably Peter the Hermit, ]\Ieii of all 



109(> 

TO 

1099. 



classes and sorts start in great disorder for the Holy 
Land after Peter the Hermit and other fanatical lead- 
ers; many perish by the way; in Germany they massacre 
the Jews; in liulgaria, not being able to l)uy 2)r()visions, 
tliey devastate the country, carry off the Hocks, burn 
the houses, massacre the inhabitants who oppose their 
violence. 

As soon as possible, organized forces of French and 
(rermans, amounting to two or three hundred tlionsand 
warriors, under the lead of Duke Godfrey of Bouillon, 
Count Hugh of Vermandois, — the French king's brother, 
— Raymond, Count of Toulouse, Aymer (Adhemar), 
bishop of Puy, set forth for Jerusalem. Tlieir followers 
are largely knights, who mortgage or sell tlieir lands to 
other knights, and largely to the Church. After crossing 
tlie Phosphorus they wage a constant war against the 
''infidel"'; besiege and take Nicaea ; Baldwin, brother of 
Godfrey, takes Edessa, and rules its territorj' as its king. 
Tlie crusaders besiege Antioch, and after nine months 
gain it. Jerusalem is captured, and a promiscuous massacre 
of its inhabitants follows, during whicli the Jews are l)urned 
alive in their synagogues. 

Godfrev of Boulocrne is chosen kino- of tlie Latin Kino- 

t & <D 1/ 

dom of Jerusalem. 

Constant petty war in the East ; on the fall of 
Edessa into the hands of the Moslem, a new 
a})])eal for help is made to Europe. 



1099 

TO 

1145. 



S'20 STUD1P:S in (general HlSTufJY. 



St. Bernard as an emissary of the pope preaches 
the second crusade. The king of France and 
the emperor lead its forces, but return unsuccess- 



1145 

TO 

1149. 



ful after a disastrous marcli and lieavy losses in Palestine. 



1149 TO 1171. 



IITI 

TO 

1187. 



Saladin deposes the Moslem rulers at Cairo, 
and restores it to the caliphate at Bagdad ; re- 
conquers Jerusalem for Islam, but allows the 
Latins to leave the city. 

A third crusade is preached in Europe. Kich- 
ard I. the Lion-Heart, of England, Philip Augus- 
tus of France, and the Emperor Frederick L the 



1187 

TO 
1194. 



Red-bearded (Barbarossa) set forth for the Iloly Land. 
In England, the Saladin tithe, a tax of a tentli, is levied on 
all who do not personally join the crusade, Frederick 
dies in Asia Minor ; during the siege of Acre tlie soldiers 
die by thousands of a pestilence. Philip Augustus and 
Pichard quarrel on the way and after their arrival at 
Acre. On the surrender of tliis town, Philip returns 
to France ; quarrel between Richard and the Duke of 
Austria; the armies, too much weakened to attack Jeru- 
salem, are broken up, and make their way as they can 
back to Europe. Richard, passing through Austria in dis- 
guise, is recognized and imprisoned ; for a heavy ransom 
raised from the English people the emperor releases him. 
} 1194 TO 11 98. I Unsuccessful crusading. 

Innocent III. commissions Fulk of Neuilly to 
preach a new crusade, the chief leader? of Avhich 
are French barons ; they ask the Venetians for 



1198 

TO 
1304. 



provisioned ships; unable to pay for them in money, they 
agree wdth the Doge to pay for them by conquering 
Zara ; the Doge himself joins the crusade, and the Vene- 
tians are to have half of all the conquests made; Zara 
conquered, the crusaders take up the cause of a dethroned 



STUDY ON CKLTSADlK(r PKKloD. 82l 

Byzantine prince, whom the}' undertake to restore to tlie 
throne ; tlie pope protests ; nevertheless they depose the 
reigning emperor on behalf of his rival, whom they in turn 
dethrone, since he fails to pay the mone}^ promised to tlie 
crusaders. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, is now chosen 
emperor of the East, and the Latin Empire of Constanti- 
nople is founded. 

STUDY ON I a. 
What and who has the commanding force in Europe in 1095? 
What facts show this ? What does the long siege of Antioch show in 
regard to the comparative military power of Christian and Turk ? 
What is the cause of the third crusade? Compare the treatment of 
fFerusalem by the crusaders and by Omar and Saladiu. What do 
many of the crusaders evidently consider their first Christian duty ? 
What civilizations are brought into contact by the crusades ? What 
new material forces do they put at the disposal of the pope? W^hat 
increase of wealth do they bring to the Church? What proof can you 
find that the crusading zeal diminishes during this period? Wliat 
reason can you assign ? Why should France lead in these movements 
rather than Germany ? AVhy should the French emperors of Constan- 
tinople and the kingdom of Jerusalem be called Latin f Why should 
P^uropeans still be called "Franks " throughout tlie East? 

h. Summary of Events in Umpire. 

Quarrel of investitures settled by the Concordat 
of Worins^ by which the emperor retains but one- 
half his former rights. It is established that the 
emperor must receive his power from a conclave of Ger- 
man princes, temporal and spiritual. — Under Arnold of 
Brescia., Rome attempts to revive her old republican gov- 
ernment, free from the rule of the pope. — The Polish 
dukes coiiquer West Pomerania, whose people promise to 
recognize the lordship of Poland, and to become Christians. 

Frederic Barbarossa, of the Swabian house of 
Hohenstaufen, is elected emperor ; the cities of 
Northern Italy form the Lombard League to pre- 



1133 

TO 

1153. 



1153 

TO 
1190. 



322 STUDIES IX GEN Eli AL HISTORY. 

serve their independence against. ]iini; lung \\;irs willi the 
League end in the emperor's acknowledging the riglits of 
the cities ; war with Henry of Saxony and ]>avaria, and 
({uarrels with the ]3opes, in which tlie papacy comes off 
victorious. The followers of the emperor are named 
Ghibelins, those of the popes, Guelfs. — Frederic dies 
while engaged in the third crnsade. 

Continued strife of pope and emperor, — of Guelph 
and Clhibelin ; strife (^f emperor and powerful Ger- 
man princes ; large privileges gi'anted to cities. — 



1190 

TO 

1315, 



Naples and Sicily won from the Normans by the emperor. 

c. In Frmice. 

King Lewis VL (the Fat) fights with several of 
his great feudal lords over cpiestions of sovereignty 
and the administration of justice, in behalf of tlie 



1108 

TO 
1137. 



11311 

TO 
1180. 



church and their own vassals ; is on the whole victorious, 
and gains much love from the common people. 

King and pope quarrel over investitures ; the 
king having burned a church full of people, makes 
peace with the pope on condition of going upon a 
crusade (second). Suger, abbot of St. Denis, is regent 
during his absence; on his return, war breaks out with 
Henry H. of England, Avho has claims to various parts of 
the French territory. 

Philip Augustus upon the throne ; the great 
vassals make war upon him, but the king, victor- 
ious, gains control of new lands; goes upon third 



1180 

TO 
1233. 



crusade ; on his return, wars with Richard and John of 
England for Normandy, which he wins from the latter, 
and makes a part of France. 

In the south, the sects of the Albigenses and Waldenses 
are spreading doctrines denying the spiritual lordship of 
Rome ; the pope, unable to convert them, declares a cru- 



1100 

TO 
1154. 



STUDY ON ClirSADlNc; I'KlflOI). 323 

sade against tlieiu ; llie South ol' Franco is ravaged by 
men from all ])arts under llie lead of Simon of Montfort, 
und tlu^. lieresy is praetically externiinated. 

Disaffected Flemisli barons, joined liy John of iMigland 
and the German em})eror, make war on Philip ; the latter, 
assisted by the burghers of the Flemish cities, defeats 
them at Bouvines (1214). 

(1. Li England. 

The barons oppose King Henry I. ; he grants a 
charter, giving privileges to them and to the clergy; 
helped by the common people of the realm, whom 
Anselm rouses to his aid, he defeats a rival claimant to 
the throne. His successor wages war with various aspi- 
rants to the royal power. 

King Henry II. makes Thomas Beket arch- i ^^^^ 
bishop of Canterbury and his chief councillor. to 
The latter insists that the clergy shall be judged I ^^^^ 
by the law and the officers of the Church alone, while the 
king insists that they shall be judged by the common law 
of England, and in the king's courts. To decide it, bishops 
and barons meet at Clarendon, and issue the "Constitutions 
of Clarendon," by which the king's court is to decide in 
each case to whom the judgment shall belong, and which 
otherwise strengthen the king against the pope. The 
quarrel of Henry and Thomas continues, ending in the 
murder of Thomas, who is declared a saint by Kome, and 
greatly honored by the English people. 

With the approval of the pope, Henry invades Ireland, 
and makes it a part of the F]nglish realm. Wars with the 
French and Scotch, in the midst of which, Henry, fearing 
defeat, does penance at the tomb of Thomas Beket. 

He establishes circuit courts to do the " king's justice," 
and collect the "king's dues," and allows appeals from 



324 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKV. 

these to himself and his own councillors ; imposes the 
" Saladin tithe,'' a tax levied on all goods and chattels, to 
suppoi't a contemplated crusade. 

Richard, the Lion-hearted, sells bishoprics, sher- 
iffdoms, and other offices, and with the money goes 
on a crusade, leaving England under the regency 



1189 

TO 

1315. 



of bishops ; on his return, he meets revolt and disaffec 
tion in England and Normandy, and under his successor, 
John, Normandy is finally lost to the English crown; 
John quarrels with the pope over the election of the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury ; his kingdom is put under interdict, 
and himself excommunicated ; his barons are against him, 
because of his failure to keep his promises to redress their 
wrongs ; he seizes their castles and confiscates the lands 
of the Church ; the pope deposes him and proclaims a cru- 
sade against him ; John yields, surrenders England as a 
fief to Rome, and receives it again as "pope's man"; 
under the lead of the archbishop of Canterbury, the 
English barons demand a recognition of the rights given 
by the charters of former kings; John promises, but delays 
to fulfil. 

STUDY ON h, r, (I, 

What facts show uneasiness under papal rule? Compare this 
uneasiness with that shown in preceding period. AVhat facts show 
increase of papal power? The weakness of the imperial name ? Wliat 
new opposition has the emperor to meet? What does the fact and the 
result of this opposition show of the power of those making it ? 

Wliat part of the government is increasing in power in France? 
In England? What reason can you find for this in the crusading- 
movement ? What efforts made by the pope in the interest of 
Christian unity ? AVhat class shows itself on the side of the kings ? 
What reason can you imagine for this ? What significant fact ap- 
pears in the victory of Bou vines ? Explain the loss of Normandy 
to England. Name three things shown by the affair of Thomas 
Beket. 



STUDY ON CKUSADING PERIOD. 



325 



2. List of Famous Names and Works of Twelfth 
Century, 



Names. 


Bitth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Abelard. 


French ; of 


Wanders 


Teacher in 


Latin. 




a noble 


from school 


schools of 






house. 


to school. 


Paris ; applies 








studying 
with fa- 
mous mas- 
ters ; stu- 
dent at 
Paris. 


the doctrines of 
Nominalism 
(see p. 304) to 
theology, and con- 
demned as a 
heretic. 




Aben-Ezra. 


Jew of 
Toledo. 


Kabbinical. 


First to write 
exhaustive and 
scholarly criti- 
cisms on the 
Holy Scriptures. 


Hebrew. 


Averrocs. 


Spanish 


Studies the- 


Teaches phil- 


Arabic. 




Arab ; 


ology, juris- 


osophy, law, 






judge in 


prudence, 


and medicine 






Seville, 


mathema- 


at Cordova ; 






Cordova, 


tics, medi- 


author of a 






and 


cine, and 


complete trans- 






Morocco. 


philosophy. 


lation of and 
commentary on 
Aristotle. 




Arnold of 


Italian 


Studies in 


Attacks the 


* * * 


Brescia. 


priest. 


France 

under 

Abelard. 


temporal power 
of the pope 
and the wealth 
of the clergy ; 
agitates for 
the restoration 
of the ancient 
republic. 


• 



326 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Names. 



Birth and 
Circumstance. 



Beket, 
Thomas. 



Bernard, St. 



Son of a 
London 
trader and 
magis- 
trate ; of 
Norman 
descent. 

Frencliman ; 
of noble 
birth ; 
abbot. 



Education. 



Cause of Fame, 



Studies at 
University 
of Paris ; 
court-life. 



Monastic. 



See L 



Orator ; connnis- 
sioned by the pope 
to preach the 
second crusade ; 
author of sermons, 
letters, moral and 
religious works; 
founds many mon- 
asteries of the 
Cistercian order. 



Frederic 


Son of Swa- 


Life in 


See 1. 


Barbarossa. 


bian duke ; 


camp and 






elected 


court. 






emperor. 






Geoffrey of 


Welsh; arch- 


Monastic. 


Translates the his- 


Monmouth. 


deacon and 




tory of the Bri- 




bishop. 




tons from the 
Welsh. 


Godfrey of 


French count 


Social and 


See 1 ; author of 


Houillon. 


of the 


military 


Assizes of Jerusa- 




Empire 


life. 


lem, the best col- 




(Nether- 




lection of feudal 





landish). 




law. 


John of 


Saxon ; arch- 


Studies at 


Writes a satirical 


Salisbury. 


bishop of 


Paris 


work on " The 




Canter- 


under 


frivolities of 




bury. 


Abelard. 


Courtiers, and tlic 
footsteps of Philos 
ophcrs"; poet. 



STUDY OX CRUSAD1X(; J'EllIOI). 



327 



Names. 


BirtI} and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Maimonides. 


Cordovan 


Proficient in 


Mathematician, 


Hebrew 




Jew ; \)\\\- 


theology 


astronomer, phi- 


and 




sieian to 


and medi- 


losopher, and theo- 


Arabic. 




Saladin, 


cine; mas- 
ter of 
Greek and 
Arabic 
philoso- 

piiy- 


logian, following 
Moses and 
Aristotle. 




Mabnesbury, 


English ; 


Monastic ; 


Author of chroni- 


Latin. 


William of. 


monk; 


studied 


cles of contempo- 






monastery 


with 


rary and tradition- 






librarian. 


learned 
bishop. 


al English history. 




]\Iap, Walter. 


Anglo-Nor- 


Studies at 


Poet, using Keltic 


Latin and 




man; arch- 


Paris. 


stories; writes 


French. 




deacon of 




satirical poems 






Oxford , 










friend and 










counsellor 










of the 










English 










king ; 










diploma- 










tist. 








( )rdericus 


Anglo- 


Studies in 


Poet; author of 


Latin. 


A'italis. 


Xorman; 


French 


general Ecclesiai- 






monk. 


monaster- 
ies. 


tical History. 




Peter the 


Italian; of 


Studies at 


Founds the 


Latm. 


Lombard. 


obscure 


Bologna, 


Scholastic 






birth ; 


Kheinis, 


philosophi/, an at- 






bishop of 


and Paris. 


tempt to reconcile 






Paris. 




the philosophy of 
Aristotle with the 
theology of the 
Church. 





328 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Philip 


Hereditary 


Life of court 


See I. 


Frenclu 


Augustus. 


king of 
France. 


and camp ; 
crusading. 






Kichard I. of 


Hereditary 


Life of camp 


Poet, musician, and 


French. 


England. 


king of 
England. 


and court ; 
crusading. 


knight. 




Roger of 


English ; 


Studies at 


Historian of con- 


Latin. 


Hoveden. 


legal ad- 
viser of 
Henry II. 
of Eng. 
land ; 
magistrate. 


' Oxford(l). 


temporary events. 




Saladin. 


Arab sol- 
dier; sul- 
tan of 
Egypt and 
Syria. 


* * * 


See 1. Founder of 
Mohammedan 
dynasty, ruling 
from Cairo. 


Arabic 


Wace. 


Of a noble 


Studies in a 


Uses the chronicle 


French, 


■ 


(baronial) 


monastic 


of Geoffrey of 






Norman 


school at 


Monmouth for 






family ; 


Caen. 


French poetical 






monk. 




romances of Ar- 
thur and early 
Britons, and writes 
a poetical history 
of Rollo and the 
Norman dukes. 





STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 829 

Famous Found atlo'iis, Enterprises, Works not named in Lists. 

School of Bologna, founded at least as early as begin- 
iii:ig of twelfth century ; famous for the study of Roman 
and canon law. The Roman law there taught (Justin- 
ian's) translated into French in this same century ; the 
canon law, based on the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals (see 
p. 309), codified by a Benedictine monk, one of the Bo- 
lognese professors. 

Schools of Paris, famous for the study of Scholastic phi- 
losophy ; a study which received much impulse from various 
students and teachers who had studied Averroes in Spain. 

Tiuyin\ Chronicle, a half-romantic work written in 
Latin by German and Spanish monks, and forming the 
basis of much of the mediseval romance in regard to 
Charlemagne. 

Foundation of Orders of Military Monks : a. Knights 
of St. John, or Hospitallers ; b. Templars ; c. Teutonic 
Knights. These orders were great brotherhoods of knight- 
monks whose duties were to defend and care for all Chris- 
tian people and places, while their vows bound them to a 
half-monastic life. Their property was held in common ; 
the care of sick or disabled pilgrims or knights was one 
of their special duties. 

STUDY ON 2. 

Write a statement, in the form of a tabular view or an essay, of all 
that is taught us by 2. 

3. Extracts and Stories Illustrative of the Period. 

a. Appeal of Pope Urban IT. at the Council of Cleimont. 
(Ordericus Vitalis.) 
'' ' The Turks and Persians,' said Pope Urban, ' the Arabians 
and Saracens, have seized Antioch, Nica^a, and Jerusalem 
itself . . . with other Christian cities, and have now turned 
their mighty power against the Empire of the Greeks. . , . 



330 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

lu the churches, where the divine sacrifice was ouce celebrated 
by the faithful, the Gentiles now stable their horses. . . . 
Thej^ have dragged away captives into far-distant countries, 
into the seats of barbarism, and yoking them with thongs, set 
them to labor in the fields, compelled them to plow the land 
like oxen, and to nndeigo other toils befitting beasts rather 
than men. . . . Our brethren are flogged Avith whips, urged 
with goads, and abominably subjected to innumerable suffer- 
ings. . . .' No sooner had Pope Urban eloquently poured forth 
these complaints into the ears of Christians, than, by the inspira- 
tion of God's grace, thousands were inflamed with excessive zeal 
for undertaking the enterprise, and resolved to sell their lands 
and leave all they had for the sake of Christ. Rich and poor, 
monks and clerks, townsmen and peasants, were all seized with 
a wonderful ardour to march to Jerusalem or succour those 
that became pilgrims. . . . Estates of great value were sold 
for a trifle, and arms were purchased to inflict divine vengeance | 
on the Saracens. Robbers, pirates, and other criminals, touched 
by the grace of God, rose from the depths of iniquity, con- 
fessed and renounced their sins, and . . . joined the ranks of 
the pilgrims. The prudent Pope stirred up all who were able to 
bear arms, to fight against the enemies of God, absolving by 
his authority all penitents from their sins from the hour they 1 
should take the cross, and releasing them from all obligations 
of fasting and other mortifications of the flesh." I 

b. The Same. (From another contem[)orary chronicler.) 

, The Pope addressed himself to all the nations represented at 
the Council, particularly to the French, who were in the major- 
ity : " Nation beloved by God," said he, " it is in your courage 
that the Christian church has placed its hope. . . . Recall, 
without ceasing, to your minds the danger and the glory of' 
your fathei-s. . . . More noble triumphs await you, under the 1 
guidance of the God of armies ; you will deliver Europe and 
Asia ; you will save the city of Jesus Christ, — that Jerusalem 
which was chosen by the Lord, and from whence the law is 



STUDY ON CKUSAL>iN(J PEKiOJ). 831 

come to us. . . . Cliristiau warriors, who seek witliout end 
vaiu pretexts for war, rejoice, for yoii have to-day found true 
ones. You, wlio have been so often the terror of your fellow- 
citizens, go and light against the barbarians, go and fight for 
the deliverance of the holy places ; ... if you triumph over 
your enemies, the kingdoms of the East will be your lieritage ; 
if you are conquered, you will have the glory of dying in the 
very same place as Jesus Christ, and (lod will not forget that 
he has found you in his holy ranks. . . . Remember well what 
the Lord has said to you : ' He who loves his father and his 
mother more than me is not worthy of me ; whoever will aban- 
don his house or his father, or his mother, or his wife, or his 
children, or his inheritance, for the sake of my name, shall be 
recompensed a hundredfold, and possess life eternal.' " Rising 
as one man, with one voice, the people answered, "It is the 
will of God ! It is the will of God ! " 

c. The Sacred Spear. 

When the Christians were besieged in Antioch, they suffered 
fearfully from famine and weakness ; their commander even 
had to burn down some sections of the city in order to force 
them to fight with the Moslem. The Count of Flanders became 
a beggar in the streets for the coarsest and poorest food, and 
many a knight sold all his arms for the food for a single night. 
In the midst of this misery, one of the princes cried out, "O 
God, what is become of thy power? If thou art still an all- 
powerful God, what is become of th}' justice? Are we not thy 
children, are we not thy soldiers?" 

At this critical state of affairs, a priest declared that it had 
been revealed to him by a thrice-repeated vision that near the 
altar of one of the churches of Antioch lay buried the head 
of the spear which pierced our Lord, and that if this were 
found and borne at the head of the arni}^, certain victory would 
follow. The report flew among the soldiers ; for three days 
they prayed and fasted so as to prepare to find the lance. On 
the morning of the third day, twelve chosen crusaders began 



332 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the search. At midnight the lance was found, the city resounded 
with shouts of jo}^, and the Cliristians were eager to meet their 
foes. The next night was passed in prayer and devotion. On 
the following day the plains of Autioch rang with the battle- 
cry of the crusaders: "It is the will of God." This army, 
ragged, famished, sick, but inspired by faith in the divine aid 
promised by the lance, advanced in perfect order and certain of 
victory, to attack the Moslem thousands. The battle went hard ; 
but as victory waned, say the historians, there appeared a 
squadron descending from the mountains, led by three horse- 
men in white, and clad in shining armor. "Behold," cried a 
bishop, "the holy martyrs, George, Demetrius, and Theodore, 
come to fight for you." Again the war-cry sounded: "It is 
the will of God " ; the Saracens were put to flight, and the Chris- 
tians fell on their deserted camp, where they found food and 
raiment and " admirable riches." For days they were busy 
carrying the spoil into Antioch, and " every crusader," according 
to the remark of Albert d'Aie, " found himself much richer than 
when he quitted Europe." Wlien afterwards, the vision of the 
lance was questioned, the priest who saw it resolved to end all 
doubt by submitting to the ordeal by fire. In the presence of 
the army, and full of faith, he entered the high flaming blaze in 
his simple robes. He passed the ordeal alive, but not unscathed, 
and in a few days died ; " and the miraculous lance from that 
time ceased to work miracles." 

d. From the Bulls of the Pope regarding the Second Crusade. 

' ' We grant to those who will devote themselves to this glori- 
ous enterprise the privileges which our predecessor Urban 
srauted to the soldiers of the cross. We have likewise ordered 
that their wives and their children, their worldly goods, and 
their possessions, should be placed under the safeguard of the 
Church, of the archbishops, the bishops, and other prelates. 
We order, by our apostolic authority, that those who shall 
have taken the cross shall be exempt from all kinds of pur- 
suit on account of their property." 



STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 333 

******* 
" He who shaii have contracted debt shall pay no interest. 
... If the lords of whom he holds will not, or cannot lend 
him the money necessar}', he shall be allowed to engage his 
lands or possessions to ecclesiastics or any otlier persons. 
As onr predecessor has done, by the authority of the all-power- 
ful God, and by that of the blessed St. Peter, prince of the 
apostles, we grant absolution and remission of sins, we promise 
life eternal to all those who shall undertake and terminate the 
said pilgrimage, or who shall die in the service of Jesus Christ, 
after having confessed their sins with a contrite and humble 
heart." 

f. After the Second Crusade. 

Many complaints were made of its preacher, St. Bernard, and 
his partisans, "struck with stupor," could only say among 
themselves: "God in these latter daj's has neither spared his 
people nor his name ; the children of the Church have been 
given over to death in the desert, or massacred by the sword, 
or devoured by hunger ; the contempt of the Lord has fallen 
even upon princes ; God has left them to wander in unknown 
wa^'s, and all sorts of pains and afflictions have been strewe(3 
upon their paths." 

/. Impressions of the Crusaders. 

During the first crusade "they believed at every moment 
that they were approaching the end of their pilgrimage. . . . 
Many of the great lords, who had passed their lives in their 
rustic donjons, knew very little more on this head than their 
vassals ; the}^ took with them their hunting and fishing appoint- 
ments, and marched with their falcons on their wrists, preceded 
by their hounds." 

As the crusaders approached Palestine, "in the plains and 
on the hills were oranges, pomegranates, and many other sorts 
of trees unknown in the West. Among these new productions 
was the sugarcane," which the pilgrims brought back to Europe, 



381 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

whilst the Saracens introduced it into the kingdom of Grenada, 
whence the Spaniards afterwards conveyed it to America. 

The chroniclers exclaim over the beauty of the gardens of 
Damascus and its "variegated" marble edifices; they admire 
"the industry and the commerce of Tyre, the fertility of its ter- 
ritory, its dyes so celebrated in all antiquity, that sand which is 
changed into transparent vases." " As for Antiocli," says one 
of the chroniclers, " this place was an object of terror to those 
who looked upon it, for the number of its strong and vast towers, 
which amounted to thi'ee hundred and sixty," while its ramparts, 
solid as rock, were three leagues in extent. On reaching 
Constantinople, a French chronicler exclaims: "Oh, what a 
vast and beautiful city is Constantinople ! " A German histo- 
rian says tliat " such magnificence could not be believed were it 
not seen." It is said that the French knights, on seeing its 
towers and palaces, " could not persuade themselves that there 
could be such a rich cit}" in all the world." 

AVhen, finally, Constantinople fell into the hands of the cru- 
saders, knights, barons, and soldiers exclaimed in delight, 
' ' Never was so rich a booty seen since the creation of the world ! " 

" The Venetians, more enlightened than the other crusaders, 
and born in a city constructed and embellished by the arts, 
caused several of the monuments of Byzantium to be transported 
into Italy." 

g. From a Letter of Saladin. 

" God has performed the promise he made to raise his reli- 
gion above all religions. Its light is more brilliant than that of 
the morning ; the Mussulmans are restored to their heritage, 
which had been wrested from them. ... He only made war 
on those who opposed Him, that the word of God might be 
spread ; for the word of God is exalted." 

h. The Bargain of the Venetians vnth the Crusaders. (Villehar- 

douin.) 
When the doge of Venice granted aid to the crusaders, he 
said, "We will make transports which will carry 4500 horses 



STUDV OX (JKUSADIKO PEHIOlJ. B35 

:iud 90U0 squires ; mikI in shi[)s wo will convey 4500 kniglits- 
and 20,000 foot-soldiers. iVnd the eontriict shall cover nine 
months' provision for all these horses and all these people. 
Tills is what we will do on condition that we are paid four marcs 
for every horse and two for every man ; and the contract shall 
beain to take effect from the day in which we set sail from 
Venice, in the service of God and Christendom." The doge also 
promised tifty armed galleys '• for the love of God," on condition 
that French and Venetians should share half and half in all 
their gains. 

STUDY ON 3. 

Xame all the motives which, in your opinion, moved men ^o go 
crusading. Of these, which were characteristic of the time? AVhich 
common to all times ? What is the relation of the pope to the cru- 
sades ? What historic reason w^hy the pope should appeal especially 
to the French ? What was the value of the sacred lance to the cru- 
saders? What would naturally become of much feudal land as a 
\esult of such circumstances as the crusaders found themselves in at 
Antioch? What effect would such circumstances have upon their 
faith ? What proofs that this eifect was produced ? What effect upon 
the population of Europe? What class would become relatively weak 
in point of numbers ? What did crusading evidently teach the cru- 
saders? What benefits evidently accrued to Europe from this cru- 
sading? AVhat occupations would rise in value in men's regard? 
To whom would the power formerly exercised by the perished knights 
now pass ? What do we learn as to the comparative amount of civil- 
ization in the West and in the East? In what ways was the West be- 
hind? Why should the Venetians be more enlightened than the other 
crusaders ? What practical proof in their own city of their civilization ? 
What motives and what spirit seem to have actuated Saladin ? State 
all that you learn about the Venetians from their bargain with the 
crusaders. 



836 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

C. LATER MEDIEVAL PEEIOD, 1215 - 1492. — Prom the 
G-reat Charter to the Discovery of America. 

Chief contemporary authorities and sources of informa- 
tion : Laws of England, France, the Empire, and the 
Church; charters and petitions of guilds, towns, orders; 
the monastic chroniclers, such as Matthew Paris and the 
monks of St. Denis; the chronicles of courtiers and travel- 
lers, such as those of Joinville, Froissart, Marco Polo ; 
literary remains^ in poetry and prose, notably of Chaucer, 
Dante, Roger Bacon; monuments of period, — its castles, 
cathedrals, town-defences and town-halls ; frescoes and 
tapestries, painted and wrought for churches, castles, or 
town-halls. 

Chief modern authorities in English, as before, adding 
Rogers' " Six Centuries of Work and Wages," and Bren- 
tano's " Essay on Guilds " for industrial history. 

1. Organizations of the Period, 

a. States. 

The kingdoms of Europe are still, in theory, feudal 
monarchies ; the Empire still the Holy Roman Em- 
pire ; in each country, however, now appear prominently 
Asseinhlies of Estates; that is, assemblies composed of 
men from the Estate (rank or order) of Nohility^ to whicL 
men are admitted by birth and training ; from the Estate of 
the Clergy^ to which they are admitted by vows of devo- 
tion to the Church ; and from the Tlilrd Estate^ the Estate 
of Com^nons^ that is, of free, untitled men. In France, 
this assembly is called into existence by King Philip the 
Fair, and is named the States- General; in Spain, it is 
the Cortes ; in England, the Parliament ; in Germany, the 

1 For the literary remains of England, see the publications of the Early 
English Text Society. 



LATER MEDIEVAL PEKIOD. 



887 



Diet. Practically, on the continent, the merchants pre- 
dominate in the third estate ; in England, tlie merchants 
and the country gentry (knights of landed property) 
alike compose it. Tliese assemblies of estates are called 
together at the desire of kings or emp„- ors, to vote sii[)- 
plies of money for the needs of the monarch, and some- 
times to be consulted on the affairs of the realm. In the 
empire the emperor is now elected by a body of seven 
electors, three of them archbishops, four of them princes 
or dukes of great German fiefs. 

h. The Church 

The following table shows the elements and relations 
of the ecclesiastical organization : — 



Pope, elected bj cardinals ^ 
for life, or until neces- 
sary cause of deposition. 



General councils of bish- 
ops and archbishops, 
called together by pope 
or emperor. 

Archbishops and bishops, 
appointed or confirmed 
by the pope. 



Appoints cardinals, arch.bishops, and often 
bishops ; determines in regard to the forma- 
tion of new religious orders, and appoints 
their generals ; has general oversight of 
university instruction, and suppresses books 
and men whose teachings seem injurious to 
religion; appoints papal legates (ambassa- 
dors to various European courts) ; calls from 
all Christendom for money -contributions, 
the expenditure of which he himself directs ; 
final judge in all cases pertaining to arch- 
bishops and bishops ; maker of all new canon 
law, and final judge in regard to the old. 

Decide in cases of conflicting authority be- 
tween popes ; determine what is heretical 
and what orthodox in regard to points of dis- 
puted doctrine. 

Same as before ; ecclesiastical rulers of prov- 
inces and towns, under the general super- 
vision of the pope; judges, amenable to 
pope and papal legates. 



1 Cardinals, ecclesiastics chosen by the pope f<s.r his chief advisers and 
administrators. 



888 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 



Secular clergy. 

Monastic orders author- 
ized by pope. 



Mendicant orders, Domin- 
icans and Franciscans. 

Military orders, authorized 
by the pope, who con- 
firms or appoints their 
masters or generals. 

Papal legates. 



Same as before ; resident preachers and pas- 
tors under the bishops. 

Same as before; bound together by oaths of 
poverty, chastity, and obedience, living in 
communities under strict rules of labor and 
worship. 

Bound by vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi- 
ence ; itinerant preachers, living on the alms 
of the people. 

Bound by the vows of pc verty, chastity, and 
obedience, and enjoined to duties of hospi- 
tality and of arms, exercised in behalf of 
pilgrims, and in general of Christians in the 
East ; defend and hold Eastern fortresses. 

Represent the interests of the pope at various 
courts ; ambassadors ; plenipotentiaries of the 
pope, whose decisions overrule those of bish- 
ops and archbishops in disputed cases. 



All this body of clergy claim and obtain freedom from 
all taxation by secular princes, excepting only feudal 
dues and voluntary grants; tliey are also generally free 
from the jurisdiction of the secular courts, being judged 
by ecclesiastics. 

G. The G-uild. 

In the towns of this period we see men binding them- 
selves together in G-idlds ; their organization may best be 
studied from the following extracts from their consti- 
tutions : — 

From the Guild of Berwick-on- Timed, 1283-1284. 
" Common fines shall go into the stock of thj guild. Brethren 
shall bequeath something to the guild, if they make wills. If 
a brother be foul-mouthed to another, he shall be fined ; and, 
on repetition, shall be further punished. Heavy fines shall be 
paid for bodily hurt done. Weapons shah not be brought to 
guikbmeetings. None shall be taken into the guild without 



LATER MEDIAEVAL rEKIOD. 389 

paying at least forty .shilling!"^, saving the sons and daughters of 
guildmen. Help shall be given to poor and ailing brethren. 
Dowries shall be given to poor maidens of good repute [in the 
guild]. Poor brethren shall be buried at the cost of the guild. 
Help shall be given to brethren charged with wrong-doing. If 
the brother has been rightly charged, he shall be dealt with as 
the aldermen ^ and brethren think well. No lepers shall come 
into the borough, a place for them being kept outside the town. 
No dung or dust-heaps shall be put near the banks of the Tweed. 

'• Underhand dealings in the way of trade shall be punished. 
If any one buy goods, misled by false top samples, amends must 
be made. Forestalling of the market shall not be allowed. 
Wools and hides shall not be engrossed by a few buyers. The 
affairs of the borough^ shall be managed by twentj'-f our discreet 
men of the town, chosen thereto, together with the mayor and 
four provosts. The mayor and provosts shall be chosen by the 
commonalty. 

" Bewrayers of the guild shall be heavily punished. Out- 
dwelling brethren of the guild must deal in the town on market- 
days. . . . 

" No woman shall buy at one time more than a chaldron (36 
bushels) of oats for making beer to sell. . . . Whoever buys a 
lot of herrings, shall share them, at cost price, with the neigh- 
bors present at the buying. . . . Tanned leathers, brought in by 
outsiders, must be sold in open market and on market-day. . . . 
No one shall have more than two pair of mill-stones." 

The Carpenters'' Guild at Norwich promises "help to those 
fallen into poverty or mishap, if not brought about through folly 
or riotous living." 

From the Lancaster Guild of the Holy Trinity and St. Leonard. 
" No guild-brother shall wrong the wife or daughter or sister 
of another, nor shall allow her to be wronged so far as he can 
hinder it." 

^ Aldermen, = Ekiermen, the chief elected officers of tlie guild. 
^ In this case all the citizens of the borough were guildsmen. 



340 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

"A wax light shall be kept burning before the holy cross, 
on the days when they go in procession in honor of the holy 
cross." 

"None of them shall work after dinner on Saturdays, nor 
on any days which they ought to keep as festivals, according to 
the law of the Church. 

"If any one wishes to learn the craft, no one shall teach it to 
him until he has given twopence to the wax [for the light]. 

" If any of the brotherhood is justly charged with theft to the 
value of a penny, he shall be put out of the company." 

From the Bakers' Guild at Exeter. 

" Search shall be made at hucksters' houses for bread made 
outside the town. Such bread is forfeited. 

" Horse loaves shall be made two for a penny, of clean beans ; 
otherwise, a fine must be paid, which goes half to the city and 
half to the guild. No baker shall be allowed in the town, unless 
a freeman, and also one of the guild." 

d. The Town. 

The organization and relations of the town may be seen 
in the following extracts and summaries of various town- 
charters : — 

From the English Charter of Leicester. 

" The townsmen made a covenant with the Earl of Leicester 
that they should give him threepence yearly for each house in 
the High Street that had a gable, on condition that he should 
grant to them that the twenty-four jurors who were in Leices- 
ter from ancient times should from that time forward discuss 
and decide all pleas they might have among themselves." 

From French Charters given hy the King to Orleans (of twelfth 

century, but typical of this period). 

"We will and order that all men who live and shall live at 

Orleans be henceforth free and exempt from all tax and duty, 

and we will seize neither them nor their goods, their wives. 



LATER MEDIiEVAL PERIOD. 341 

sons, nor daughters, and will do them no violence, so long as 
they desire to and do receive the judgment of our court. . . . 
Now we make them all these concessions, on condition that all 
those to whom we give this grace . . . henceforth, each year, 
upon each four gallons of wine or corn which they shall have, 
shall pay us two deniers.^ . . . Now, every year, we will send 
to Orleans one of the people who serve us in our house, and 
who, with our other sergeants in the town, and ten good burghers 
[peers], w^hom the burghers of the town shall elect in common, 
shall annually collect this tax of bread and wine. . . . All men 
dwelling within the inclosure of the walls of the town and in 
the suburbs, of whatever seignior the land which they inhabit 
be held, shall swear to the borough, unless some of them abstain 
by the advice of the peers, and of those who have sworn the 
borough. ... If he who has committed a crime take refuge in 
any strong castle, the peers of the borough shall confer with the 
seignior of the castle. And if satisfaction be done upon the 
enemy of the borough according to their sentence, let that suf- 
fice ; but if the seignior refuse satisfaction, they shall them- 
selves do justice, according to their judgment, upon his property 
or his men. . . . The peers of the borough shall swear to 
favor no one out of friendship, and to give up no one out 
of enmity, and do all things in justice according to their 
conviction. . . ." Under Philip Augustus, " Thirteen peers 
are to be elected in the borough, among whom, if it be the 
wish of those who have sworn the borough, one or two shall be 
made mayors." 

The Charter of Beaumont^ granted by its Bishop, " made all 
the inhabitants of the commune of Beaumont proprietors of a 
sufficient quantity of land to give them means of subsistence, 
with the use of the woods and water-courses ; every precaution 
was taken to prevent fraud in commerce and trade, especially 
in regard to the millers, the bakers, and the butchers ; and the 
administration of the commune was entrusted to a number of 
burghers, elected by the most notable citizens." 

1 A French coin of less value than an English penny. 



342 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

STUDY ON I. 

In whose interest are the assemblies of estates evidently called 
together? For what object? What does the presence of the third 
estate show in regard to its wealth? What kind of importance do 
these assemblies give to this estate ? What does the composition of 
the third estate in England show? 

What characterizes the organization of the Church? Of what 
advantage is this characteristic ? What acts as a check on the central 
power? At what part of its organization has the Church entirely sepa- 
rated itself from the empire ? What actual material powers has the 
papacy at its command? What kinds of power does it exercise? 
What spirit in the Church is embodied in the mendicant orders ? In 
the military orders? What point of contact has this organization 
with a ? In what way is the papacy better as a form of government 
than an ordinary monarchy ? What two points of Church organization 
threaten the prosperity and peace of states ? 

What class of men compose the guilds? Make a list of the objects 
of guilds. What is their attitude toward morality? Peace? Pub- 
lic cleanliness and health ? Of what value is each of these things to 
the guildsmen? What is the political organization of the guild? 
Make a list of all the benefits you can think of as likely to result from 
such organizations to the guildsmen. To the community at large. 
Towards what injustice do you see a tendency ? What two bonds of 
union exist within them? What do they constantly seek to pre- 
vent in trade ? What do the extracts tell you of the position of women 
in the class represented by the guilds ? What great difference between 
the relation existing between men of the same occupation in the same 
town then and now ? 

What kind of power are the towns gaining? Men of what occu- 
pations and classes are gaining this power? What is the political 
constitution of the towns ? What power have they by which to gain 
liberties and privileges ? Whose power must decline, theirs rising ? 
What kinds of oppression and injustice evidently existed before the 
granting of their charters? Whom will they favor, kings or nobles, 
and why? How is the work of the towns and guilds now done? 

In General. — It may be said that this is a period in which powers 
and classes are being defined ; give illustrations from the organizations. 
What sort of organizations are the town and the guild as contrasted 
with the kingdom, the empire, and the papacy? What general effect 
Avould they have on peace and order? On political independence? 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 343 

2. Summary of Events, 1215-1492. 

a. In the Empire. 



1215 

TO 
1354. 



Jengliiz Khan and his Mogul successors ravage 
Eastern Europe, threatening the empire. — Con- 
stant strife of papal [G-uelf]^ and imperial [G-hi- 
helin'] parties over di8i)Uted rights of appointment and of 
jurisdiction in various territorial possessions, notably in 
Sicily. — The emperor grants bishops and nobles legal 
sovereignty in their own domains when he is not in person 
present. 

'-^G-reat Inteyn^egmtm^'' ; i\\Q electors being di- 
vided in their votes for emperor, the pope threat- 
ens to appoint one if they do not choose. They 



1354 

TO 

1373. 



then elect Rudolf of Hapsburg, founder of the House of 
Austria, and the pope confirms their choice. — During this 
time, the Duke of Poland has himself crowned its king, 
and Poland thus becomes independent of the empire. — 
The pope offers the crown of Sicily to the French count 
of Anjou, who conquers it by force of arms. — More than 
sixty cities of the empire, under the lead of archbishops, 
form the League of the Rhine^ for mutual defence against 
the nobles. About the same time, eighty other German 
cities form the League of the Hanse^ with Lubeck, Cologne, 
Brunswick, and Dantzig at their head. This league has 
four principal foreign stations, — London, Bruges, Bergen, 
and Novgorod. Its objects are, common defence, security 
of routes by land and sea, a court of arbitration in case of 
dispute, and the extension of trade to foreign parts. 

Wars and dissensions of nobles, princes, cities, 
parties, and emperors ; the papal chair [1309] is 
removed from Rome to Avignon, which is the 



1273 I 

TO I 

1378. 1 



pope's residence during nearly the wdiole century. — The 
three forest cantons of Switzerland form a league fur mut- 
ual defence. — The island of Sicily revolts against Anjou, 



344 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

and chooses a Spaniard of the House of Aragou for its king. 
Thus "The Two Sicilies" were separated, one being under 
French, one under Spanish rule. — In 1338, the electors of 
the empire declare that " the imperial dignity is derived 
from God alone," that " it is by their choice " the titles of 
king and emperor are given; and that it is unnecessary for 
the pope either to approve or confirm. 

In Kome, Cola di Rienzi, who takes the title of tribune 
of the people, attempts to revive the old Roman republic. — 
In 1356, the emperor, Charles IV., issues the Golden Bull, 
by which it is formally declared that the emperor shall 
gain his ofhce by the choice of the seven electors of the 

empire. 

Continued residence of popes at Avignon ; 

continued wars of parties and cities in Italy. 
"Great Schism of the West," caused by a 

double election of popes, one at Rome, one at 

Avignon, dividing the allegiance of Western 
Europe. A series of Church councils are held, to settle 
the papal disputes, and to try to limit the papal power; a 
settlement is finally accomplished by the Council of Con- 
stance, which is called by the emperor, and elects a single 
pope to rule from Rome. By this same council, John 
Huss and Jerome of Prague are burned, because they are 
preaching through Bohemia doctrines opposed to the 
papacy, following the lead of Wiclif, who had preached 
similar doctrines in England. 

War in Bohemia between the followers of 
Huss and the king. A large and formidable 
body of the former, under the name of Taborites, 



1356 

TO 
1378. 



1378 

TO 

1418. 



1418 

TO 
1493. 



cry out for "equality! no more kings! no more priests ! " 
During this time the imperial dignity passes permanently 
to the House of Austria. — War between the various Italian 
cities ; war between cities and military adventurers and 



LATER MEDIAEVAL TEUIOD. 345 

lords of the empire ; the cities sometimes indcpenclent, 
sometimes in leagues, sometimes under the tyranny of 
other cities, sometimes under that of a wealthy family. 

h. In the East. 

Jerusalem is retaken by Mohammedans (Chorasmians), 
who are fleeing from the' Moguls, and the Christian king- 
dom of Jerusalem ends ; the Moguls seize upon Bagdad, 
thus ending its caliphate in 1258. — Constantinople is re- 
gained by the Greek emperors, 1261, and held by them 
until 1453, when, after vain appeals to the West, and 
promises of reunion of the Eastern and Western Church, 
it is taken by the Ottoman Turks, and made the capital of 
Turkey in Europe ; the Turkish conquest of Greece and 
the Greek islands soon follows. 

c. In France. 

***** p 



1315 TO 1236. 



1336 

TO 
1370. 



Time of LcAvis IX., the Saint. War of the 
barons against the king, whom Paris and all the 
communes (towns) of France swear to defend. 
Unsuccessful struggle of the bishops against the king. In 
all these troubles, Blanche of Castile, the king's mother, is 
the regent of the realm, the king being a minor. 

New war of barons, with some help from England, 
against the king ; the king proclaims that every baron 
holding fiefs both under him and the English king must 
choose one of them for his master ; most of them choose 
Lewis. — Two unsuccessful crusades, one practically end- 
ing in Egypt, and one in Tunis. 

During this reign, the royal domain is enlarged towards 
the south by purchase and by conquest. 

The whole of Toulouse falls to the crown on 
the death of its childless count. — The king, in want 
of money, taxes the clergy, sells privileges to 



1370 

TO 
1337. 



B46 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

towns, and freedom to serfs ; the pope issues a bull, for- 
bidding the clergy to pay taxes to any civil power, without 
his permission. Thereupon, a violent quarrel arises be- 
tween the pope and the king ; the latter calls to his sup- 
port the estates of France, — the nobility, the clergy, the 
burghers or third estate. This meeting of the estates at 
Paris is the first " States-General." This body declares for 
the king : revolt in Flanders ; the French nobility marcli 
to put it down, but are beaten by the Flemish burghers, 
and their golden spurs are hung as trophies in the cathe- 
dral of Courtrai. In this " Battle of the Spurs " many 
lords of fiefs perished. Continued quarrel of king and 
pope. The king grants the independence of Flanders, 
except from his feudal lordship. The knights templars 
are suppressed, and their wealth passes to the king. 

JTimdred years^ war between England and 
France. Edward III. of England claims the 
right to the French throne and the lands of 



1337 

TO 

1453. 



Aquitaine ; war follows. Under Edward III. and his son, 
the Black Prince, the English win the victories of Crecy 
and Poitiers ; later still they win Agincourt, and the 
English right to the throne is conceded. France refuses 
to acknowledge the treaty, and war continues. Jeanne 
d'Arc, claiming the direct inspiration of God, appej^rs, 
rouses the French to enthusiasm and faith. They drive 
the English from France, and the whole land except 
Calais comes under the lordship of the king of France. 
Jeanne d'Arc, delivered a captive to the English, is burned 
for witchcraft and heresy. 

In the midst of the war comes the Black Death, taking 
half the population and visiting all ranks ; the king, in 
need of money for the war, convokes the States-General ; 
the nobles vote for w^ar and taxes, the clergy and the 
third estate ask delay and reform. In this demand, Etienne 



848 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Marcel, provost of the Paris merchants, leads ; the king, 
paying no heed, and dismissing the estates, Paris is forti- 
fied. The king still delaying reform, Paris revolts, and 
demands (1) taxes levied by the States-General; (2) 
checks to the extravagance of the court; (3) reform in 
the administration of justice; (4) good money; (5) 
the arming of all men as a national guard. The king 
promises to yield to the conditions ; breaks his promise. 
Paris revolts again ; war between the king and Paris ; 
meanwhile, in the country, Jacques (the peasant) rises 
against the nobles " with iron-shod sticks and knives " ; 
this revolt is known as a " Jacquerie " ; castles are ruined 
and burned, nobles and peasants slain ; but the peasants 
in the country, and the burghers in Paris, are alike sub- 
dued by king and noble. 

The great nobles and lords form the " League 
of the Public Good," and make war on king 
Lewis XL in behalf of their ancient independence 



1453 

TO 

1493. 



and privilege, but the king at last subdues them. 

During this time the territorial gains of the French 
monarchy are as follows : Dauphiny and Montpellier are 
bought from their heirs ; Provence on the death of its last 
count goes to the French king; Aquitaine is conquered 
from the English in the hundred years' war ; Burgundy is 
annexed by Lewis XL By sale, inheritance, dowry, or 
conquest, the royal domain in France very nearly comes 
to correspond to that indicated in the map, p. 397. 

STUDY ON 2. 

Make a list of all the signs of weakness that you see in the imperial 
office. What signs that the towns are strong? The Church? The 
nobles? What proof that no one of these powers predominates? 
Name two evidences of the special relation between France and the 
papacy. What evidences of German hostility to the papacy? What 
political reason for this hostility ? What is meant by referring to the 



1315, 
1816. 



LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 349 

imperial title as a dignity rather than a power ? What states come to 
an end during this period, what begin, and what are fully formed? 

What strong parties appear in France, and how related ? Compare 
with Germany. Of what value is the enlargement of the royal do- 
main? What new powers and resources does the king thus gain? 
AVhat does the king appear to feel an especial need for during this 
period ? What gain to the people arises from this necessity ? What 
special reason why the desire for territorial possession should be a cause 
of war between England and France ? Why should the nobles vote 
for war? Why the clergy for peace? Why the third estate? What 
evils evidently exist in France at the time of this war ? On the whole, 
what part of the state gains power during this period, and by what 
means ? 

d. In England. 

The barons in arms under Stephen Langton, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, with the nation to 
back them, demand of John the signing of the 
Great Charter (Magna Charta), in confirmation of ancient 
rights ; at Runnymede they force him to sign it ; the pope 
excommunicates the barons; war between them and the 
royal and papal forces; John dies, and the cliarter is pro- 
claimed in the name of his successor, Henry III. 

The king wanting money, gets it on condition 
of a fresh confirmation of the charter ; the pope 
needs money, and sends to England for it ; the 
king promises it; the barons refuse, but a tithe of all cleri- 
cal property is demanded ; the king surrounds himself with 
foreigners, to whom he gives much money, and with whom 
he keeps an extravagant court ; again in need of money, 
he calls the great council of the realm ; they grant it on 
condition of economy and confirmation of the charter ; the 
king promises, but breaks his faith ; the clergy complain of 
the heavy papal taxes that are sanctioned by the king; 
Under the lead of Simon de Montfort the baronage in 
arms demand their liberties from the crown. The kiijo- 



1316 

TO 
1373. 



350 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

yields and makes new promises; breaks them, the pope ab- 
solving him from his oath ; the barons and the towns, under 
Simon, make fresh war upon him ; the king is captured, and 
Simon calls a parliament, summoning nobles, clergy, and 
commons ; the latter comprising krughts, two elected from 
each shire, and citizens, two from every borough. War 
continues, but finally ends with the fresh confirmation ol 
the rights of the realm, and the promise that taxation shall 
only be imposed with the consent of the great council. 

Edward 1. reigning, confirms the charter and 
keeps his word. Needs money for conquest of 
Wales ; parliament grants him a tax on every sack 



1373 

TO 
1307. 



of wool exported; Wales is subdued and joined to the 
English realm. War threatens from Scotland and from 
France ; Edward calls (1295) a parliament of the realm 
to aid him with counsel and gold ; to it he calls knights, 
nobles, barons, clergy, and two burgesses, "from every 
city, borough, and leading town." The money granted is 
spent in the war, and more required; tax on w^ool is 
raised and grows oppressive ; forced contributions of 
money and corn ; barons revolt ; Edward confesses himself 
wrong; is granted new moneys by clergy and commons 
in return for the confirmation of their rights, and the 
promise not to tax without the consent of the taxed. 
Victory over the Scotch under Wallace, but new war 
against them under their new leader, Bruce, in the midst 
of which King Edward dies. 

Contests between the royal power and the 
baronage over supplies and charters ; the Scotch 
war presses ; the king confirms the charters before 



1307 

TO 
1455. 



given, and parliament grants supplies ; the Scotch under 
Bruce beat the English at Bannockburn; truce between 
England and Scotland made by the king under the influ- 
ence of his favorites; parliament thereupon deposes him 



LATEK MEDI.EN'AL PERIOD. 351 

on the charges of 'indolence, incapacity, the loss of Scot- 
land, the violation of liis coronation oath, oppression of 
the Church and baronage," and his son reigns in his stead 
under a council of barons. Scotch war renewed; all 
south of the Frith of Forth is ceded to Enghmd, and hom- 
age is done for the rest. Hundred years' war breaks out, 
and Scotland becomes independent. Constant war ; con- 
stant demand on the part of the king for money ; parlia- 
ment meets every year, and many laws favorable to the 
trading classes are passed; the House of Commons sits 
as a separate body, and its petitions often become law. 

Victories over the French, at Crecy, Calais, Poitiers; 
meanwdiile the exactions of the court of Avignon increase, 
the pope appoints foreigners to English livings, and finally 
demands the payment of the annual sum promised by 
John Lackland, in token of the temporal lordship of Rome. 
King Edward refers the matter to parliament. Both 
liouses answer that " neither King John nor any king can 
put himself, his kingdom, nor his peojDle, under subjection 
save Avith their accord or assent." Wielif, scholar and 
preacher at Oxford University, boldly preaches the inde- 
pendence of the English Church, and attacks the practices 
and the doctrines of Rome. His followers are known as 
'^Lollards,'''' and their revolt against established belief 
and practice produces much agitation and disturbance 
(LoUardfyy 

In the midst of the French war comes the ^'-Black Death^'' 
destroying more than half the English folk. Laborers ask 
for higher wages; emploj^ers refuse them; taxes grow 
heavier. The peasants revolt, demanding the abolition of 
serfdom ; by fair promises the king disperses them. Their 
leaders are punished, and the king refuses to keep his 
word ; nevertheless, from that time serfage begins to dis- 
appear and labor to be paid in wages. 



852 STUDIES IN (iENEKAL HISTOKY. 



1455 

TO 
1485. 



'' Wars of tlie Roses " ; wars between the 
houses of York (white rose) and Lancaster 
(red rose) over their rights of succession to the 
English crown ; settled at last by the marriage of a York 
and a Lancaster, from which union springs the Tudor line 
f the sixteenth century. 



o 



e. In Other Countries of Europe. 

In Spain and Portugal continual strife of Christian and 
Moor ; the Arabs driven back to the sole possession of 
Granada ; Sicily joined to Aragon ; just before the sixteenth 
century, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, Castile 
and Aragon are united ; by conquest of Ferdinand, Gre- 
nada is freed from the Moors and joined to the Spanish 
realm. — In 1283 the General Privilege, the Magna Charta 
of Aragon, is granted, which provides for the fair and open 
administration of justice, for defining the powers of cities, 
for securing property against the arbitrary use of crown, 
for preserving the privileges of towns and nobles. In the 
north and east of Europe, a crusade is preached against the 
heathen of the Baltic, to which the pope and the emperor 
commission the Order of Teutonic Knights, who win from 
heathendom Prussia and Baltic lands adjoining. — The 
Moguls invade Europe and conquer Russia, which comes 
again, however, under native rule before the close of the 
period. — Hungary and Poland become the bulwarks of 
Christendom against the Turk, beating him back south- 
ward from the imperial frontier. 

STUDY ON d. 

Make a list of the facts in England which correspond to facts in 
France during this same time. What great difference do you notice 
in the outcome of events in these two countries ? What occupation 
would seem to be a source of English wealth, which we have not 



J.ATER MEDIAEVAL PEIILOI). 



853 



noticed on tlie continent as such? (Jive two indications pointing to 
this conclusion. What great and constant check on despotism in 
England? ^^l^at new class appears as a contending party in Eng- 
land? What indication that this class is more intelligent in England 
than in France ? How far is this a proof ? What relation between the 
•■ P)lack Death " and the demand for higher wages ? How is a wage- 
laborer better off than a serf ? A serf than a slave ? How does the 
power of Ferdinand, king of Spain, compare with that of other kings? 
Why? 

In General. — Against what barbaric races is Europe called upon 
to protect herself V What additions are made to the European com- 
monwealth? What is lost to it? What fact do you see common to 
the Empire, France, England, Spain ? What to the Empire, France, 
and England? What general cause for the calling of estates? What 
acts as a check upon royal power? On the power of the nobles? 
What does the fact that the events in each country nmst be treated 
separately indicate ? 

3. List of Famous Names of Period, 

((. Thirteenth Gentunj (1215-1300). 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Albertus 


Swabian ; of 


Student at 


Follows Abelard 


Latin. 


Magnus, 
the " Uni- 


old family ; 
student ; 


Padua, 
Bologna, 


with caution ; stud- 
ies, teaches, and 




versal 


Dominican 


Paris. 


writes on all sub- 




Doctor." 


monk; lec- 
tures in 
Paris and 
Cologne ; 
bishop. 




jects then pursued ; 
seeks in natural 
science the basis 
of knowledge ; 
writes on proper- 
ties of stones, 
plants, and ani- 
mals ; author of 
many chemical re- 
cipes ; accused of 
magic. 





854 



STUDIES IN C4ENERAL HlSTOKV. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Alfonso the 


Hereditary 


Life at his 


lias Bible translated 


Spanish. 


Wise, of 


king of 


father's 


into Spanish; 




Castile. 


Castile. 


court at 
Castile. 


author of poetical 
and scientific 
works; codifies 
Spanish law on 
basis of Roman 
and native laws. 




Aquinas, 


Neapolitan; 


Studies at 


Lectures at Paris 


Latin, 


St. Thomas, 


Dominican 


Naples and 


to great audiences 




the "Angel- 


monk ; lec- 


Paris; pu- 


on theological 




ic Doctor." 


tures in 


pil of 


philosophy ; his 






Paris, and 


Albertus 


theology forms 






many Ital- 


Magnus. 


the basis of that 






ian towns. 




afterward taught ; 
inclines to Real- 
ism ; seeks in 
theology the 
basis of knowledge. 




Bacon, 


Franciscan 


Studies at 


Realist; author of 


Latin. 


Roger, 


monk. 


Oxford and 


the "Great Work" 




the "Ad- 




Paris. (See 


a cyclopedia of the 




mirable 




Geber, p. 


thirteenth century 




Doctor." 




264.) 


knowledge of 
geography, mathe- 
matics, music, 
astrology, physics, 
anatomy; invents 
the telescope and 
discovers gun- 
powder; accused 
of heresy and 
imprisoned. 




Cimabue. 


Florentine; 


Watches the 


Fresco-painting, 


* * * 




of noble 


Greek 


studied from 






family. 


painters 
who had 


nature ; 
paints for 





LATEIJ MKDl.EVAL PEKIOI). 



855 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


CoKse of Fame. 


Language. 






been called 


churches ; empha- 








to Florence 


sizes expression 








to decorate 


in painting. 








a chapel. 






Dominic, St. 


Spaniard ; 


Studies at 


Eeligious zealot ; 


* * * 




of honora- 


the Univer- 


champion of the 






ble family; 


sity of Sal- 


Church ; becomes 






monk. 


amanca. 


a mendicant 
preacher, hoping 
to work reforms in 
Church abuses ; 
establishes the 
Dominican order 
of monks. 




Edward I., 


King of 


Life of camp 


Organizes and ar- 


English, 


1272-1307. 


England by 


and court, 


ranges the body 






hereditary 


abroad and 


of English law ; 






right. 


in England. 


gives form to 
House of Com- 
mons; conquers 
Wales. 
(See 2.) 




Francis, St., 


Italian ; son 


A little 


Establishes Francis- 


* * * 


of Assisi. 


of a trades- 


study with 


can order of 






man; monk. 


the parish 
priests. 


monks, vowed 

to poverty and 

simplicity 

of life; 

preaches 

self-renunciation 

in Illyrica, Spain, 

Holy Land, — 

everywhere 

gaining 

disciples. 





356 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Grosseteste, 


English; 


Studied law, 


Author of a treatise 


Latin. 


Robert. 


bishop of 


theology, 


on the sphere ; 






Lincoln. 


and medi- 
cine at 
Oxford ; 
Greek and 
Hebrew at 
Paris. 


author of about 
200 books ; trans- 
lates from Greek ; 
poet, writing short 
poems on moral and 
religious subjects. 




Joinville. 


French ; 


Life of 


Author of chronicles 


French. 




knight. 


camp and 
court. 


of the Crusades, 
in which he took 
part, and life of 
St. Lewis ; author 
of a chronicle of 
contemporary 
events; employed 
in matters of state. 




Layamon. 


English ; 


Studies in 


Translates Wace's 


English. 




priest. 


English 

monastic 

school. 


Chronicle of 
Britain (the 
"Brut"). 




Langton, 


English ; 


Studies at 


Involved in consti- 


Latin and 


Stephen. 


archbishop 


University 


tutional struggles ; 


English. 




of Canter- 


of Paris; 


instigator of the 






bury ; chan- 


distin- 


demands of the 






cellor; mem- 


guished in 


Magna Charta. 






ber of pope's 


theology 








household; 


and philos- 








cardinal- 


ophy. 








priest. 








Lewis, St. 


King of 


Educated at 


Author of the 


French. 




France. 


court under 
the direc- 
tion of his 
mother, 
Blanche of 
Castile. 


" Establishments 
of St. Lewis," a fa- 
mous collection of 
French legislation, 
largely modified by 
Roman law. 





[.ATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 



357 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Matthew 


English 


Studied at 


Author of chronicle 


Latin and 


Paris. 


monk ; 


Paris Uni- 


of contemporary 


Frencli. 




friend and 


versity ('?). 


events; employed 






advisor of 




in matters of state. 






English 










king, Henry 










III. 








Montfort, 


French ; 


* * * 


See 2. 


French 


Simon de. 


noble ; 
English 
king's 
seneschal 
and am- 
bassador. 






and 
English. 


Peter de 


Italian ; 


* * * 


Writes a cyclopedia 


Latin, 


Crescenzi. 


of wealthy 




of all the botanic 


translated 




Bolognese 




knowledge of his 


into 




family. 




time, adding there- 
to his own obser- 
vations ; this work 
goes through fif- 
teen or twenty 
editions before 
close of period. 


French 
and other 
languages 


Polo, Marco. 


Venetian ; 


Travel and 


Travels in Asia and 


French 




high officer 


life. 


dictates an account 


and 




of Great 




of his travels, 


Italian. 




Khan of 




which is published ; 






Tartary. 




first to make the 
existence of Japan 
known to Europe. 




Villehardou- 


Noble and 


Life of 


Author of " Con- 


French. 


in. 


warrior of 


camp and 


quest of Constan- 






Cham- 


court ; 


tinople," very pop- 






pagne. 


crusading. 


ular in the middle 
ages. 





3o8 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

h. Names of Fourteenth Century. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education, 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Artevelde, 


Of distin- 


Society and 


Leader of citizens 


* * * 


Jacob van. 


guished and 
wealthy 
family ; 
member of 
brewer's 
guild, which 
he joins to 
gain influ- 
ence. 


politics. 


in their struggle 
for independence 
against the Count 
of Flanders. 




Boccaccio. 


Italian ; son 


Studies in 


Author of the '•' De- 


Italian. 




of a mer- 


Florence, 


cameron," a series 






chant ; 


travels in 


of stories or novels 






poet; pat- 


France. 


based on real life 






ronized by 




or on mediaeval 






queen of 




French romances. 






Naples. 








Bruce, 


Scottish 


Life in camp 


Leader of Scotch 


Scotch. 


Robert. 


noble ; king 
of Scotland. 


and court. 


revolt against Eng- 
lish rule ; compels 
recognition of 
Scotch independ- 
ence. 




Chaucer. 


Londoner ; 


Student at 


Father of English 


English. 




son of a 


Oxford or 


poetry ; author of 






merchant ; 


Cam- 


" Canterbury 






courtier, 


bridge(?). 


Tales," a series of 






scholar, 




stories told in 






soldier, 




verse, partly origi- 






poet. 




nal, partly taken 
from French, 
Italian, and classi- 
cal sources. 




Dante, 


Florentine 


Studies the 


Author of the 


Italian. 


Alighieri. 


patrician. 


classics ; 


" Divine Comedy," 





LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 



359 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 






also philos- 


a poem describing 








opiiy, 


the visions of a 








astrology, 


journey through 








mathema- 


Hell, Purgatory, 








tics, rhe- 


and Paradise ; 








toric. 


lover of Beatrice, 
in whose honor he 
writes " The New 
Life." 




j'roissart. 


Frenchman ; 


Life in camp 


Author of "Chroni- 


French. 




priest, poet. 


and court. 


cles " of contempo- 






musician. 




rary French and 
English history. 




jiotto. 


Italian 


Pupil of 


Paints frescoes for 


* * * 




shepherd- 


Cimahue. 


churches ; archi- 






boy. 




tect of the famous 
bell-tower of 
Florence cathedral. 




jlanvil, 


English ; 


Studies at 


Compiles a cyclo- 


Latin, 


Bartholo- 


monk. 


Oxford, 


pedia dealing with 


translated 


mew. 




Paris, 


all kinds of natu- 


into 






Rome. 


ral objects, which 
is reprinted ten 
times. 


French, 
English, 
Spanish, 
Dutch. 


^an gland, 


English ; 


Monastic. 


Author of the " Vis- 


English. 


William. 


monk. 




ion of Piers Plow- 
man," a satirical 
allegory of human 
life, especially 
sharp against the 
clergy. 




Mandeville, 


English ; 


Society and 


Explores parts of 


French, 


Sir John. 


knight. 


travel. 


Africa and Asia, 
and writes a book 
of his travels. 


English, 
Latin. 



360 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Marcel, 


Son of a 


Business 


See 2. 


French. 


Etienne. 


Parisian 
draper ; 
rich mer- 
chant. 


and affairs. 






Occam, 


English ; 


Studies at 


Nominalist; lec- 


Latin. 


William of, 


Franciscan 


Oxford; at 


tures at Paris ; aids 




the « In- 


monk and 


Paris with 


the French king in 




vincible 


physician ; 


Duns Sco- 


his quarrel with 




Doctor." 


teacher of 
theology. 


tus. 


the pope ; author 
of many philosoph- 
ic and theologi- 
cal works. 




Petrarch. 


Italian; son 


Studies the 


Author of sonnets 


Italian, 




of a no- 


classics ; 


in honor of his 


Latin. 




tary; poet 


lives at 


lady Laura ; found- 






and prose- 


courts. 


er of "Humanism," 






writer, 




or the interest in 






patronized 




the life and litera- 






by various 




ture of classic 






princes ; 




antiquity. 






ambassa- 










dor. 








Rienzi, 


Roman ; of 


Well- 


Attempts to re- 


Italian. 


Cola di. 


obscure 
birth; no- 
tary ; papal 
ambas- 
sador. 


educated. 


store the ancient 
Roman liberties 
under the forms 
of the old repub- 
lic ; the '•' Last of 
the Tribunes." 




Tyler, Wat. 


English 
peasant. 


* * * 


Leader of the peo- 
ple unsuccessfully 
revolting against 
the king because 
of oppressive 
taxation. 


English. 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 



361 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Wallace, Sir 


Scotch 


Life of 


Leader in Scottish 


Scotch. 


William. 


knight; 


camp and 


wars for independ- 






guardian of 


court. 


ence. 






Scotland. 








Wiclif. 


English 


Studies at 


Translates the Bible 


English. 




preacher 


Oxford. 


from Latin into 






and lect- 




English; eloquent 






urer at Ox- 




preacher; urges 






ford; pat- 




reform in the doc- 






ronized by 




trine and practice 






English 




of the Church; 






king. 




denounces the 
begging friars 
(Dominicans and 
Franciscans). 





.Eneas 


Italian ; of 


Studies clas- 


One of the first 


Latin. 


Sylvius, 


old but 


sics and 


mathematicians 




Pius IL 


poor fami- 
ly; diplo- 
mat for 
emperors 
and popes ; 
pope. 


law. 


of his age ; cosmog- 
raphist; writes on 
geography and his- 
tory. 




Angelico, 


From a 


Monastic 


Paints miniatures 


^ * * 


Era. 


wealthy 


and ele- 


for manuscripts ; 






family near 


mentary. 


also many pictures 






Florence ; 




on religious and 






monk. 




scriptural subjects 
for churches. 




Rrunelles- 


Florentine ; 


Apprenticed 


Architect of the 


* * * 


Chi. 


son of a 


to a gold- 


great dome of 






notary ; 


smith ; 


Florence. 






member of 


studies 







362 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 




the gold- 


sculpture. 








smith's 


perspective, 








guild. 


and geome- 
try. 






Cardan. 


Son of a 
lawyer and 
physician ; 
professor 
of mathe- 
matics and 
medicine at 
university 
of Pavia. 


* * * 


Writes a famous 
treatise on mathe- 
matics; writes 
also on scientific 
and philosophic 
subjects. 


Latin. 


Caxton, 


English ; 


Mercantile ; 


First English prin- 


English 


William. 


merchant 


learns art 


ter ; translates 






and official. 


of printing 
in Flanders. 


many foreign 
(mostly French) 
works into English. 




Comines, 


French ; 


Life at 


Author of " Me- 


French 


Philip de. 


noble ; 
councillor 
and cham- 
berlain of 
King Lewis 
XI. 


court. 


moirs," which give 
a vivid picture of 
Lewis XL and his 
time. 




Cusanus 


German ; 


Studies law 


Writes on philoso- 


Latin. 


(Nicolas 


cardinal- 


and mathe- 


phy ; in astronomy. 




Krebs). 


bishop. 


matics at 
Padua ; 
studies 
theology. 


the forerunner of 
Copernicus ; 
mathematician, 
theologian, philos- 
opher. 




Donatello. 


Florentine ; 


Apprenticed 


Makes beautiful 


* * * 




of noble 


to a gold- 


statues and carv- 






family ; 


smith ; 


ings, mostly of 






sculptor 


studies 


religious subjects ; 






and painter. 


antique 
models. 


studies from 
nature. 





LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 



363 



11 



Names. 


Bitth and 
Circumstance. 


1 

Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Ghiberti. 


Florentine. 


Apprenticed 
to a gold- 
smith. 


Sculptor of reliefs 
on the famous 
bronze doors of 
the Florence 
Baptistery; sub- 
jects scriptural, 
but studies from 
nature; famous 
jeweller. 


* * 


* 


Gutenberg. 


German; of 
noble 
descent. 


* * * 


Invents printing by 
movable types. 


* * 


* 


Huss, John. 


Bohemian ; 


Studies at 


Follower of Wiclif ; 


Latin. 






peasant ; 


University 


preacher and 






r 


professor 


of Prague. 


writer; accused 






;■ 


in Univer- 




of heresy, and 








sity of 




condemned to 








Prague. 




death. 






Jeanne d'A re. 


French ; 
peasant- 
girl. 


Religious 
instruction 
from her 
mother. 


See 2. 


French 




Jerome of 


Bohemian ; 


Studies at 


Follower of Wiclif 


* * 


* 


Prague. 


of good 


Prague, 


and associate of 








birth. 


Paris, 
Oxford. 


Huss; condemned 
and burned for 
heresy. 






Kempis, 


German ; 


Religious 


Reputed author of 


Latin. 




Thos. a. 


monk. 


and mon- 
astic. 


the " Imitation of 
Christ." 






Machiavelli. 


Florentine ; 
of the pros- 
perous mid- 
dle class ; 
lawyer, 
clerk, 
diplomat. 


Classical. . . 


Author of a history 
of Florence, and 
of "The Prince," 
a work on states- 
manship, showing 
how princes may 
gain and keep their 
power. 


Italian. 





364 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Names. 


Birth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Masaccio 


Italian; son 


Studies with 


Disregards conven- 


* * * 




of a notary ; 


other Ital- 


tionalities of for- 






belongs to 


ian artists. 


mer artists, and 






a guild of 




studies nature for 






druggists, 




his types. 






then of 










painters. 








Medici, 


Wealthy 


Literary 


Founds House of 


» * * 


Cosimo di. 


Florentine ; 


and com- 


Medici, long the 






merchant. 


mercial 
culture. 


practical rulers of 
Florence; imports 
into Italy many 
Greek manu- 
scripts new to 
Europe. 




Medici, 


Son of 


Studies with 


Ruler of Florence; 


* * * 


Lorenzo. 


Cosimo. 


famous 
men of 
letters ; 
travels to 
various 
European 
courts. 


statesman, poet, 
scholar; patron 
of artists and 
authors; spends 
much on public 
buildings and 
in founding 
schools and 
libraries. 




Mirandola. 


Italian ; of 


Studies at 


Author of a cyclo- 


Latin. 




princely 


Bologna 


pedia of mediaeval 






birth ; 


and otlier 


knowledge, con- 






patronized 


universi- 


taining much of an 






by the 


ties. 


astronomical and 






Medici. 




mathematical 
nature; attempts 
to reconcile re- 
ligion and philoso- 
phy ; condemned 
as a heretic. 





LATER ^lEDI.EVAL PERIOD. 



365 



Names. 


Bifth and 
Circumstance. 


Education. 


Cause of Fame. 


Language. 


Perugino. 


Italian ; 


Studies with 


Teacher of Raph- 


* * * 




painter. 


other 

Italian 

artists. 


ael ; paints madon- 
nas, holy families, 
and other scrip- 
tural subjects. 




Savonarola, 


Ferrara; of 


Studies 


Foretells and 


Italian. 


fc 


nohle Ital- 


Aristotle 


preaches the 




r 


ian family ; 


and 


reformation of the 






Dominican 


Aquinas. 


Church. 






friar ; 










preacher. 








Van Eycks, 


Flemings ; 


Study 


Painters; one of 


* * * 


brothers 


court paint- 


with father 


them reputed to 




and sister. 


ers for 


and other 


have invented oil- 






various 


artists. 


painting, so much 






princes and 




does he improve 






wealthy 




its methods ; 






merchants. 




pictures of madon- 
nas and other 
scriptural subjects ; 










portraits. 





STUDY ON 3. 

In what new^ ways do men now achieve greatness ? Men of what 
classes? jNIake a list of all the different directions in which the 
intellect manifests itself. In what country is each manifestation 
strongest? In what class of men? What classes patronize art? 
What three influences enter into this art? What intellectual influ. 
ences are felt throughout Europe? What do you notice about the 
laws of Spain, France, and England ? What about language in Spain, 
France, England, Italy, Germany? What countries are the most 
famous centres of learning? Contrast this list with the corresponding- 
list, pp. 236-240; what great differences strike you? In what new 
ways are men educated? What relation between a man's education 
and his work? What activities are on the increase during these 
three centuries ? What on the decrease ? What effects of crusading 
do you think you see here ? 



366 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



4. List of Fainous Inventions , Discoveries f Enterprises, 
Foundations f and Works, Unnamed in 3. 

Cathedrals, — of Notre Dame in Paris, of Cologne, 
Strasbourg, Westminster in London, York, Exeter, Canter- 
bury, Toledo, Seville, Milan, Rheims, Amiens, Florence, 
Prague, and many others. Frencli and Norman architects 
very generally superintend their erection ; from the four- 
teenth century on these cathedrals are decorated with 
magnificent windows of stained glass. — Castles on the 
Rhine and in other parts of Germany, in France, England, 
and Spain. These castles are built by great feudal lords, 
and defended by walls and moats, by position and con- 
struction. — Cit^ Walls, notably of Cologne, Nuremberg, 
Paris (1180, Philip Augustus), Florence, Vienna, Prague. 
— Guild Halls and Toivn Halls, notably in Antwerp, Brus- 
sels, Ypres, Bruges, Cologne, Florence. 

The University of Paris, modelled after the schools of 
Alexandria, and much favored in its beginning by Philip 
Augustus, king of France ; it was especially famous for 
medicine and Roman law; the universities of Prague, 
Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt, and of Leipzig, Basle, Tubin- 
gen, and Mainz, all modelled after the University of Paris ; 
their statutes sometimes begin with a eulogy on their 
Parisian Alma Mater ; the universities of Cordova and 
Seville in Spain ; in Italy the University of Bologna, 
especially famous for the study of Roman law, now much 
aided by the discovery of an excellent manuscript of Jus- 
tinian's Pandects at Amalfi ; the University of Salerno was 
famous for medicine, as well as that of Montpellier in 
France. In the fifteenth century nearly forty new univer- 
sities on the continent, and many of tlie English colleges 
were founded. In these universities the courses included 
grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geography, music, 



LATER MEDIiEVAL PERIOD. 367 

astronomy, theology, law, medicine. Tlie language of 
their books, their professors, and often of the students, 
was Latin ; the instruction was generally given l)}^ monks 
and other churchmen. After the fall of Constantinople, 
however, the study of Greek Avas very generally intro- 
duced, and the philosophy of Plato was taught as well as 
that of Aristotle. 

Numberless popular songs and romances belong to this 
period ; in Germany alone were to be found,, in the twelfth 
century, more than three hundred Mirmesingers, or wan- 
dering poets and bards, who lived by singing from castle 
to castle and from town to town. They sang of love, of 
the ])eauties of nature, of contemporary events and per- 
sons ; all the old myths of the German heroes appeared in 
their ballads, and at this time were produced in their 
present form the Hero-book and the Song of the Niblungs, 
long poems full of the mythical adventures of national 
lieroes ; all this mass of poetry was sung or written in 
German, while the romances were largely translations 
from French stories. In the fifteenth century appeared 
an illustrated " Book of Nature," which was one of the 
first to be printed ; " Reynard the Fox^'' a satirical poem 
keenly attacking the vices and faults of all classes of 
society, notably of the clergy, was widely read and widely 
translated. 

In France we find the same class of wandering singers 
as in Germany, under the name of Troubadours in the south 
and Trouveres in the north. Romances of King Arthur 
and Charlemagne were very popular, and Alexander the 
Great was a favorite hero. In general, the subjects of 
mediaeval romance were taken from the crusades, from 
national chronicles and traditions, from classical or Bibli- 
cal sources. The famous chronicles of the monks of St. 
Denis were translated from Latin into French. 



368 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

In England, the romances of the period were translated 
from the French, but a collection of homilies appeared in 
English, and the period was rich in chronicles. 

Printing presses w^ere set up in Italy, France, and Eng- 
land ; the most famous of all being that of Aldi in Venice 
(Aldine editions), and that of Caxton in England. Before 
1500, 16,000 editions of printed books had appeared. The 
following is a list of the books j^rinted by Caxton : Pil- 
grimage of the Soul; Directions for keeping Feasts all 
the Year ; Four Sermons ; The Golden Legend (a collec- 
tion of lives of the Saints), three editions ; The Art and 
Craft to know well to Die, from the French ; The Infancy 
of our Saviour ; The Life of St. Catherine of Sens ; Mirror 
of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ ; A Directory of Church 
Worship ; A Book of Divers Ghostly Matters ; The Life 
of St. Wynefrid ; The Provincial Constitutions of Bishop 
Lyndwood of St. Asaph, in Latin ; The Profitable Book of 
Man's Soul, called the Chastising of God's Children ; The 
History of Troy, translated from the French ; The Book of 
the Whole Life of Jason ; Godfrey of Boloyn ; The Knight 
of the Tower, from the French ; The Book Royal, or the 
Book for a King ; A Book of the Noble Histories of King 
Arthur and of Certain of his Knights ; The History of the 
Noble, Right Valiant, and Right Worthy Knight Paris 
and of the Fair Vienne ; The Book of Feats of Arms and 
of Chivalry, from the French of Christina of Pisa ; The 
History of King Blanchardine and Queen Eglantine his 
Wife. To these may be added, the History of Renard 
the Fox, translated by Caxton from the German; The 
Subtle Histories and Fables of ^sop, from the French ; 
The Works of Chaucer, Gower, and Lydgate ; Translations 
of Cicero, Boethius, Virgil, from the French, and Cato; 
Chronicles of England ; The Description of Britain ; The 
Polychronicon ; The Life of Charles the Great, twice 



LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 369 

printed ; Siege of the Noble tiiul Invincible City of Rhodes ; 
Statutes of the First Year of Richard III., and those of 
the first, second, and third parliaments of Henry VII. ; 
The Game of Chess ; The Moral Proverbs of Christina of 
Pisa; The Book of Good Manners; The Doctrinal of Sapi- 
ence, from the French ; A Book for Travellers. 

The following inventions and improvements were either 
new or now first came into general use ; the application of 
(juyipoivder to artillery (Germany) ; its composition seems 
to have been known in China, whence the knowledge of it 
perhaps came into Europe by w ay of India and Arabia ; 
the mariner's compass, also previously known in the 
East ; chimyieys, docks, ivatches ; paper, similar to that 
now made ; the paving of streets ; Paris was paved in the 
twelfth, London in the fifteenth century; engraving on 
wood and metal, by means of which books were illustrated 
as well as printed ; fine grades of decorated pottery, 
embroidered tapestries, lace, linen, and woollen cloths. 

The inquisition was established, a commission appointed by 
the pope for searching out and trying heretics ; confession 
of heresy was often extracted by torture, and the witnesses 
were concealed from the accused ; those condemned were 
executed at the order of the civil powers of the various 
European countries. The p)OSsession of a translation of 
the Bible unauthorized by the popes was considered a 
mark of heresy. Canon law was thoroughly codified by 
the pope. 

Mendicant friars were sent as missionaries into Asia to 
convert the Mongols and Chinese. 

STUDY ON 4. 

What new activities does 4 reveal ? What country leads in each ? 
What country, on the whole, seems to you to be first in civilization, 
judging from 4 alone? What kind of civilization? To what facts 



870 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOIlY. 

noticed in 1, 2, and 3 does the building of cathedrals correspond? The 
founding of iniiversities ? The building of the castles on the Rhine? 
Of guild-halls and town-halls ? What does the fact of such a body of 
literature in the national tongues of Europe show about the taste of 
the people? What do the subjects show ? What influences do you see 
at work in this literature ? Why is a list of the first printed books a 
very valuable index to the tastes and knowledge of the people, and the 
influences and interests felt by them? What does Caxton's list tell us 
of England in each of these respects ? What advantages have printed 
books over manuscripts? Of what did they take the place for the 
common people ? What new influences w^ould printing bring to bear on 
them which they had not before felt? What influence would it have 
upon the accuracy and clearness of their thought ? 

What foundations and enterprises of this time display a genuine 
spirit of Christianity ? Why should the pope be unusually troubled 
by heresies during these centuries? What new power or comfort 
given to people by each of the inventions named? What depart- 
ment of life do they more especially serve ? What traces do you think 
you see of the influences of the crusades? 



LATER ]VIEDI^VAL PERIOD. 



371 




mr 



a. CATHEDRAL OP AMIENS, PRANCE. 



Thirteenth century; built of stone, with stained-glass windows; the highest towc 
210 feet in height. 



872 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOllY 




b. INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL OF COLOGNE. 
Fourteenth century. 



LATER MEDIAEVAL rERTOT). 



?,78 



i'fe^tc^«S«i'i'J! 



^SHH^^»g^«H^ittS 




C. PORTAL OF NOTRE DAME OF PARIS. 

Thirteenth century; dedicated to the Virgin Mary, whose statue is on the central 
column, and whose burial is represented above; stone-carving. 



374 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 




d. 



VIEW IN THE COURT OF THE CARTHUSIAN MONASTERY AT PAVIA. 



fc^^^^ll ;^4ri-y i^:^^.^...^ ^1 

Iff,! I ^ "I 




e. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE CASTLE OP PIERREFOND. 

A short distance north of Paris; built in fourteenth centurj' by the Idng's brother; 
Btood four royal sieges ; stands on a rocky height, covering nearly one acre and a half of 
ground; towers 112'^feet high, with walls fifteen to twenty feet thick; approach to the 
castle over two permanent bridges and a drawbridge; within the castle is a reception- 
room, a chapel, a library, Mving rooms for its master and for soldiers; dungeons; the 
"Whole mass built around the court a. 







Fifteenth century; one of the three castles of the Counts of Rappoltstein, who ^o^^ the he^recl 
Itle of '•kinffs"of all the musicians and minstrels of the Upper Rhme, who Paidthema>c. 
tax m return for their protection, and who once a year gathered at the castle for a jojous leeu 



called the " Piper's day." 



L^^TEK MEDIAEVAL rERIOD. 



37 




g. THE CLOTH HALL OP YPRES. 

..,J^\''^.r"!-^ fvndfourteeuth centuries; Ypres was formerly the capital of West Flanders, 

u,rJfv "*^ Y^'^",^^'^ ^'^'^ ^^'^^ ^^^^^ ^^s ^^^ o^ ^^'6 most famous seats of the manufac 
ture of linen and of lace. 



378 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

STUDY ON PICTURES. 

What parts of a serve as a basis for decoration? What new formix 
of architecture do you see in o, b, c, gl AVhat new material is used 
for decoration ? What subjects ? What forms are employed (see c) ? 
Find something Greek, something Moorish, something Roman, in the 
pictures from a to d inclusive. In which of these pictures is everything 
purely original to this period? What beauties do you find in a, b, and 
(H Why call c a portal instead of a door? Name two facts you have 
before discovered which are illustrated by a, b, and d. Compare e and 
/with picture of Fountains Hall (p. 413) ; what notable differences in 
construction and location? Explain the points you have mentioned 
in regard to the castles, by reference to the events and organizations of 
the time. Supposing we knew nothing about this period except what 
we knew of these two castles, how much could they tell us ? What 
could g tell us, if it were the only source of information in regard to 
this time that we possessed ? 

5. Eoctracfs and Notes Illustrative of Law, Custom, and 
Organization of Period, 

a. From the Great Charter {Magna Charta)} 

14. No scutage or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom, 
unless by the common couucil [parliament] of our kingdom, 
except to redeem our person, and to make our eldest son a 
knight, and once to marry our eldest daughter ; and for this 
there shall only be paid a reasonable aid. 

15. In like manner, it shall be concerning the aids of the 
city of London, and the city of London shall have all her 
ancient liberties and free customs, as well l)y land as by water. 

16. Furthermore, we will and grant that all other cities, and 
boroughs, and towns, and ports shall have all their liberties 
and free customs, and shall have the common council of the 
kingdom concerning the assessments of their aids, except in the 

three cases aforesaid. 

******* 

20. We will not, for the future, grant to any one that he 



1 All laws and charters were in Latin till towards the close of the 
thirteenth century. 



LATER INIEDI.EVAL l^EKIOD. 379 

may take the aid of his own free tenants, unless to redeem his 
l)ody, and to make his eldest son a knight, and once to marry 
his eldest daughter, and for this there shall only be paid a rea- 
sonable aid. 

******* 
22. Common [)leas shall not follow our court, but be holden 
in some certain place. . . . 

******* 
33. No constable or bailiff of ours shall take corn or other 
chattels of any man, unless he presently give him money for it. 
* * * * * * * 

36. No sheriffs or bailiffs of ours, or any others, shall take 
horses or carts of any man for carriage. 

37. Neither we, nor our officers, or others, shall take any 
man's timber, for our castles or other uses, unless by the con- 
sent of the owner of the timber. 

I 41. There shall be one measure of wine, and one of ale, 
through our whole realm, and one measure of corn, that is to 
sa}^, the London quarter ; and one breadth of dyed cloth ; . . . 
and the weight shall be as the measures. 

45. No bailiff, for the future, shall put any man to his law 
upon his single accusation, without credible witnesses produced 
to prove it. 

46. No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or 
outlawed, or banished, or any ways destroyed ; nor will we pass 
upon him, or commit him to prison, unless b}' the legal judgment 
of his peers, or by the law of the land. [^Habeas corpus.'] 

47. We w^ill sell or deny, or defer, right or justice to no man. 

48. All merchants shall have secure conduct to go out of 
England and to come into England, and to stay and abide there, 
and to pass as well by land as by water, to buy and sell, by the 
ancient and allowed customs, without any evil toils, except in 
time of war. . . . 



380 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

60. If any one hath been dispossessed or deprived by iis, 
without the legal judgment of his peers, of his lands, castles, 
liberties, or rights, we will forthwith restore them to him ; and 
if any dispute arises upon this head, let the matter be decided 
by the five-and- twenty barons hereafter mentioned, for the 
preservation of the peace. 

******* 

69. All the aforesaid customs, privileges, and liberties which 
we have granted to be holden in our kingdom, as much as it 
belongs to us towards our people, — all our subjects, as well clergy 
as laity, shall observe . . . towards their dependents. 

******* 

78. Wherefore, we will and firmly enjoin that the Church of 
England be free, and that all men in our kingdom have and 
hold all the aforesaid liberties, rights, and concession, truly 
and peaceably, freely and quietly, fully and wholly, to them- 
selves and their heirs, of us and our heirs, in all things and 
places, forever, as is aforesaid. 

79. It is also sworn, as well on our part as on the part of 
the barons, that all things aforesaid shall faithfully and sincerely 
be observed. 

Given under our hand, in the presence of the witnesses 
above-named and many others, in the meadow called 
Runny mede, between Windsor and Stanes, on the fif- 
teenth day of June, in the seventeenth year of our reign. 

b. From the Establishments of St. Lewis. 

" We prohibit all private battles throughout our domains ; . . . 
whatever peaceful modes of settling disputes have been in force 
hitherto, we fully continue ; but battles ^ we forbid ; instead of 
them, we enjoin proof by witnesses." 

St. Lewis decreed that the clergy should not bear arms ; that 
their gold-studded belts and gilded spurs should disappear ; that 

1 It was the ordinary custom in the middle ages to settle disputes by 
" Wager of Battle," it being believed that God would give victory to truth 
and right. 



LATER MEDIAEVAL PP^RIOD. 381 

the monasteries should follow the strictest discipline, and that 
the election of bishops should no longer be tampered with by 
the king or his nobles. 

He also gave every man of the realm a rigiit of appeal to the 
king. B}^ him, the goldsmiths of Paris were freed from feudal 
dues. His successor (Philip III.) allowed those not nobles to 
gain the lands of nobles; titled the law3''ers "knights of the 
law," and made them chief advisors of the Crown. 

c. Protest of the Nobles and Commons in 1314. 

" We, nobles and commons of Champagne, for ourselves, . . . 
and for all our allies and associates within the limits of the 
kingdom of France, to all who shall see and hear these presents, 
health. It is known unto you all, that . . . our dearly beloved 
and redoubtable lord Philip, by the grace of God king of 
France, has made and imposed various taxes, . . . whereb}- and 
by several other things which have been done, the nobles and 
commons have been sorely aggrieved and impoverished, and 
great evils have ensued, and are still taking place. . . . We 
have at various times devoutly requested and humbly suppli- 
cated the said lord king to discontinue and utterly put an end 
to these grievances, but he has not attended to our entreaties. 
. . . And just lately, in this present year, 1314, the said king 
has made undue demands upon the nobles and commons of the 
kingdom, and unjust subsidies which he has attempted by force 
to levy ; these things we cannot conscientiously submit to, for 
thereby we shall lose our honors, franchises, and liberties, both 
we and those who shall come after us." 

d. From Law of Lewis X., the Tiirhident [Hutin], 1315. 

"As, according to the law of nature, each must be born free, 
and by some usages or customs, . . . many of our common 
people have fallen into servitude and divers conditions which 
very much displease us ; we, . . . wishing that . . . the condi- 
tion of the people should improve on the advent of our new 
government, upon deliberation with our great council, have 



382 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

ordered an order, that, generally throughout the kingdom, so 
far as ma}- belong to us and our successors, such servitudes be 
brought back to freedom, . . . and especially that our common 
people . . . be . . . no longer molested nor grieved in these 
respects as they have hitherto been, whereat we are displeased, 
and to give an example to other seigniors who have men in like 
tenure to give them freedom." 

e. Law of 1439. 

The king was given power to appoint the officers of the army, 
to fix the number of foot-soldiers ; to levy taxes without the 
consent of the estates with which to pay the levies. The great 
nobles opposed this by war, but were overcome. 

/. From the Oath of a Knight. 

The knight promised " to fear, revere, and serve God relig- 
iously, to fight for the faith with all his strength, and to die a 
thousand deaths rather than renounce Christianity ; to serve his 
sovereign prince faithfully, and to fight for him and his country 
most valiantly ; to maintain the just right of the weak, such as 
of widows, orphans, and maidens, in a good quarrel ; . . . never 
to offend any one maliciously, nor usurp the possession of 
another, but rather fight against those who did so. They swore 
that avarice, recompense, gain, or profit, should never oblige 
them to do any action, but only glor}^ and virtue ; . . . that they 
would never fight more than one against one, and that they 
would avoid all fraud and deceit ; . . . that having made a vow 
or promise to go upon some quest or strange adventure, they 
would never lay aside their arms except to repose at night ; that 
in the pursuit of any quest or adventure, they would never avoid 
bad and perilous passages, nor turn off from the straight road 
for fear of encountering powerful knights, monsters, savage 
beasts, or any other impediment which the body and courage of 
a single man might overcome ; . . . that they would hold them- 
selves bound to conduct a lady or maiden, they would serve her, 
protect her, and save her from all danger, and all insult, or die 
in the attempt ; . . . that . . . they would be faithful observers 



LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 383 

of their word and pledged faith, and that being taken prisoners 
in fair war, they wonld pay exactly the promised ransom, or 
return to prison at the day and time agreed upon." 

li. From the English Laws. 

Every man was bound to hold himself in readiness, duly 
armed, for the king's service in case of invasion or revolt. . . . 
All brushwood was ordered to be destroyed within a space of 
two hundred feet on either side of the public highway as a 
security for travellers against sudden attacks from robbers. 
(Edward I.) 

An ordinance was passed in Edward the Second's time, that 
no person, whether an inhabitant of London or otherwise, should 
be admitted to the freedom of the city unless he were a member 
of one of the trades or mysteries. — Under Edward III., the 
right of election of all city dignitaries and officers, including 
members of parliament, was transferred from the ward-repre- 
sentatives to the trading companies. 

"Know all men, that we have been assured that John of 
Rous and Master William of Dalby know how to make silver by 
the art of alchemy ; that they have made it in former times, 
and still continue to make it; and, considering that these men, 
by their art, and by making the precious metal, may be profita- 
ble to us and to our kingdom, we have commanded our well- 
beloved Thomas Gary to apprehend the aforesaid John and 
William, wherever they can be found, within liberties or with- 
out, and bring them to us, together with all the instruments of 
their art, under safe and sure custody." 

Edward also imported and protected Flemish weavers to spin 
the English wool. 

In 1456, Parliament confirmed the permission of the king to 
three famous men who were experimenting to find a " certain 
most precious medicine, called by some the mother and queen 
of medicines ; ... by others, the philosophers' stone ; by others, 
the elixir of life ; which cures all curable diseases with ease, 
prolongs nil human life in perfect health and vigor of faculty to 



384 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

its utmost term, is a most sovereign antidote against all poisons, 
and is capable ... of preserving to us and our kingdom other 
great advantages, such as the transmutation of other metals 
into fine gold and silver." 

STUDY ON 5. 

Make a list of the wrongs and oppressions that had evidently 
existed before the time of a. Judging from internal evidence, what 
classes of people present it, and in whose interests ? What modern 
principle in regard to taxation does it state ? In regard to the trial 
of a man charged with crime ? What extract is similar to « ? 

What reforms does St. Lewis endeavor to make? Against what 
part of the state are 6 and 6? directed ? c? What powers does e show 
in the hands of the king? What adjective will you apply to his 
power in 1439 ? Which is most civilized in political directions 
during this period, England or France? Prove it. 

What was the occupation of the knight ? Make a list of his duties. 
What feeling would he have toward men who worked for money ? 
Why ? In what ways was the knight like the ideal gentleman of to- 
day? What feelings would his vows encourage ? What virtues? 

What does the first law in h prove in regard to the good govern- 
ment of England ? What does each of the other English laws given 
indicate ? 

6. Illustrative Extracts from Literature of the Period, 

a. From Roger Bacon. 

The pope asked Bacon for a copy of his writings, and Bacon 
writes : " The head of the Church has sought out me, the un- 
worthy sole of its foot ; the vicar of Christ and ruler of the 
world has condescended to ask a favor of me, who am scarcely 
to be numbered among the units of the world." 

" Of natural philosophy there are many . . . special divisions 
... 1. optics; 2. astronomy; 3. gravity; 4. alchemy; 5. agri- 
culture ; 6. medicine ; 7. experimental science." 

Speaking of Rome, he says, "Morals there are most per- 
verted ; pride reigns, avarice is rampant, envy corrodes all." 



LATER MEDIJKVAL PERIOD. 385 

" A knowledge of reasoning is given to man by nature as the 
means for investigating all other sciences." 

Writing of alchemy, he says : — 

"There is another science which treats of . . . the elements 
and liquids simple and compound, common stones, gems and 
marbles, gold and other metals ... of which we find nothing 
in the books of Aristotle ; nor are . . . any of the Latins 
acquainted with these things. . . . Neither the names nor the 
significatioDB of medicines can be learned, except from this 
science, that is, from speculative alchemy. . . . There is also 
a . . . practical alchemy wiiich . . . not only provides money for 
a state, but teaches the means of prolonging life, so far as nature 
will allow. . . . But this . . . alchemy is scarcely understood 
by any ; for although many throughout the world labor to make 
colors truly and usefully, scarcely any know how to make 
metals, and still fewer those things which avail for the prolonga- 
tion of life. There are verj^ few who can distil properly." 

h. From German Minnesingers. 

" When Constantine gave to the Roman chair a lance . . . 
and crown, the angels wept, and rightl}', too, for now we see the 
pope abuse this power, to ruin the emperor and set his princes 
all against him. . . . How can the pope at Rome look Christ- 
like when he sees the good-hearted Germans fast ... to fill his 
coffers with their silver. I fear me, little of it reaches the 
Holj^ Land, for the priests are loath to give it up." 

" I am noble, says many a man in whom we can see neither 
virtue, nor honor, nor modesty, nor any sort of worth to rever- 
ence. . . . Nobles are of two kinds : he who is noble by birth, 
who yet may be a fool ; and he who is noble by viftue, and not 
by an honored name. 

c. From Widif. 

In Wiclif's Apology for the Lollards, he maintains : (1) That 
the pope is not the vicar of Christ, nor of Peter. (2) That 
the pope selleth indulgences. ... (6) That every priest is 



386 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

bound to preach. . . . (10) Fastings are not necessary, while 
£i man abstaineth himself from other sin. . . . (16) That 
there is no pope, nor Christ's vicar, but an holy man. (22) That 
no man is Christ's disciple unless he keep Christ's word. . . . 

(24) That images of the saints are not to be worshipped. 

(25) That the written gospel is not to be worshipped. (26) 
That charms are not lawful. These points he maintains by 
reference to the Canon law, the Scriptures, the Church fathers, 
and the early Church history. By the first point Wiclif explained 
that he meant that the pope is no vicar " when he filleth not in 
deed, nor in word, the office of Peter . . . but doeth contraril}- ; 

. . . the Apostle Paul saith thus : ' If an}- man has not the spirit; 
of Christ, he is not of him . . . the name maketh not the bishop^ 
but the life. . . .'" 

In preaching to the English peasants, Wiclif sa3-s, " Goo( 
people, affairs can only go well in England when there shal^ 
be neither serfs nor nobles, and when all shall be equal." 

d. From a Song of the Time of Edward I. 

"... It is not sound law which gives my wool to the king. 
. . . Since the king is determined to take so much, he ma}^ fine 
enough among the rich ; and he would get more and do bettei 
... to have taken a part from the great, and to have spare( 
the little ; ... it is no trouble to the great thus to grant to th( 
king a tax ; the simple must pay it all, which is contrary 
God's will . . . for those who make the grant give nothing 
the king. It is the needy only who give ; . . . with othei 
people's goods they hold great court. ... To tell unvarnishec 
truth, it is mere robbery. ... If the king would take m] 
advice, I would praise him then to take the vessels of silver anc 
make money of them." 

e. From Dante. 

"To Rome, which taught the ancient world good deed's-,, 
Two suns were wont to point the twofold way. 
That of the world and that to God which leads. 



I 



LATER MEDIAEVAL 3'ERIOI). 387 



The one hath quenched tlie other, — and scarce it need be told 

How ill the twain such combination brook. . . . 

Know then, Rome's church, ojjpressed b}^ too much weight, 

Confounding the two governments, hath brought 

Herself into the mire with all her freight." 

****** 
" O glorious stars ! 
O light abounding in exceeding life ! 
To YOU wiiate'er of genius lifteth me 
Above the common herd, I grateful owe ; . . . 
... To you my soul 
Devoutly sighs for courage even now 
To meet the hard emprize that draws me on." 

****** 
" Ah, slavish Italy ! thou inn of grief ! 
Vessel without a pilot in loud storm ! 

. . . Thy living ones 
In thee abide not without war ; and one 
Malicious gnaws another ; ay, of those 
Whom the same wall and the same moat contains. 
Seek, wretched one ! around thy sea-coasts wide ; 
Then homeward to thy bosom turn ; and mark, 
If any part of thee sweet peace enjoy. 

****** 
Oh German Albert ! who abandon'st her [Italy^ 
That is grown savage and unmanageable. 
When thou shouldst clasp her flanks with forked heels. 
Just judgment from the stars fall on thy blood ; 

For that thy sire and thou have suffer'd thus, 

Through greediness of yonder realms, detain'd, [Ger-many^ 

The garden of the empire to run waste. 

. . . Come, cruel one ! 
Come and behold thy Rome, who calls on thee. 
Desolate widow, day and niglit with moans, 
' My Caesar, why dost thou desert my side?'" 



388 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOKY. 

Ill the visit to Inferno (Hell) , Virgil thus speaks to Dante : — 

" There above [on earth] 
How many now hold themselves mighty kings 
Who here like swine shall wallow in the mire." 

And as the}' proceed on their way from circle to circle of 
misery, Dante finds immersed within the " crimson seething 
flood" 

"... the souls of tyrants, who were given 
To blood and rapine. . . . Here Alexander dwells 
And Dionysius ^ fell, who many a 3'ear 
Of woe wrought for fair Sicily. 

****** 
Christ said not to his first conventicle, 
' Go forth and preach impostures to the world,' 
But gave them truth to build on ; and the sound 
Was mighty on their lips ; nor needed they, 
Beside the Gospel, other spear or shield 
To aid them in their warfare for the faith. 
The preacher now provides himself with store 
Of jests and gibes ; and, so there be no lack 
Of laughter, while he vents them, his big cowl 
Distends, and he has won the meed he sought." 

/. From Mandeville's Travels. (Time of King Edward III.) 

"In that countree of Libye is the See more highe than the 
Land ; and ... in that See of Libye is no Fissche, for thei 
mowe [may] not lyve in dare, for the gret hete of the Sonne ; 
for the watre is evermore boyllynge, for the gret hete. ..." 

" And in that Yle there is a gret marvayle, more to speke of 
than in an}^ other partie of the world. For all mannere of 
Fisches, . . . comen ones in the Zeer [year] . . . and casten hem 
self to the seebank of that Yle, so gret plentee and multitude 
that no man may unnethe [nothing] see but Fissche ; and there 






Tyrant of Syracuse. 



LATEK MEDI.4^:VAL PERIOD. 389 

thei abyden 3 dajes ; and every man of this coiintree taketh 
of hem as many as him lykethe. ..." 

" And alle tlie men and women of that Yle [Nacnmera] have 
houndes hedes. ... In tliat con tree . . . there been wylde Gees, 
that have 2 Hedes." 

"And in another Yle, toward the Southe dwellen folk . . . 
that have no Hedes ; and here Eeyen ben in here scholdres." 

"At m3^n Horn Corny nge I cam to Rome, and schewed . . . 
to oure holy Fadir the Pope . . . this tretys . . . and besoughte 
his holy Fadirhode, that my Boke myghten be examyned and 
corrected be avys of his wyse and discreet conseille. ... By 
the whiche, my Boke was pruved for trewe." 

g. From the Prologue to Chaiicer^s Canterbury Tales} 

" A knight there was, and that a worthy man, 
That from the time that he first began 
To ride out, he loved chivalry. 
Truth and honor, freedom and courtesy. . . . 
And though that he was worthy, he was wise 
And of his port as meek as is a maid. 
He never yet no mean, rude thing had said 
In all his life, unto no manner wight. 
He was a very perfect, gentle knight 



* 



With him there was his son, a young squire, . . . 

Embroidered was he, as it were a mede 

All full of freshe flowers, white and red. 

Singing he was or fluting all the day . . . 

Well could he sit on horse, and fairly ride. 

And songs he could compose, and stories tell. 

Joust and eek dance, and well portray- and write. . . . 

Courteous he was, lowly and serviceable. 

And carved before his father at the table. 

^ In the following extracts, all the accented syllables should be pro- 
nounced. 
2 Paint. 



390 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

'^ There was also a nun, a prioress, 
That of her smiling was full simple and co}- ; 
Her greatest oath was but by Saint Loy ; 
And she was cleped madame Eglantine. 
Full well she sang the service divine. . . . 
And French she spoke full fair and cleverly. . . 
At meat well-taught was she withal ; 
She let no morsel from her lipp^s fall. 
Nor wet her fingers in her saucer deep. . . . 
In courtesy was set full much her heart. 

" A monk there was, that lov^d hunting well ; . . 
Full man}' a dainty horse had he in stable : . . . 
Greyhounds he had as swift as fowl in flight ; 
Of riding and of hunting for the hare 
Was all his love, for no cost would he spare. 
I saw his sleeves adorned at the wrist 
With costly fur, the finest of the land. 
And for to fasten his hood under his chin 
He had a curious pin of well-wrought gold : 
A love-knot in the greater end there was. . . . 
He was a lord full fat, and in good point ; . . . 
A fat swan loved he best of any roast. 

■' A friar there was, a wanton and a merry, . . . 
He was an easy man in giving penance. 
Where'er he knew he'd get a goodly pittance ; . 
He knew the taverns well in every town, 
And every worthy host, and hostess too. 
Better than any leprous beggar folk . . . 
It looks not well, and profits not 
To deal at all with folk of that low sort, . . . 
And over all, wherever profit could arise, 
Courteous he was, and lowly of service. 
* * * * * * 



I 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 391 

'-'• A Hatter and a Carpenter, 
A Weaver, Dyer, and Upholsterer 
And they were clothed all in livery 
Of an important, great fraternity. . . . 
Their knives were plated not with brass, 
Bnt all with silver wronght fnll clean and well. 
Their girdles and their pouches quite the same. . . « 
And each one by the wisdom that he had, 
Was fitted for to be an alderman ; 
For goods had they enough and rent. 
******* 

" A good man was there of religion. 
And was a poor parson of a town ; 
But rich he was in holy thought and work. . . . 
Wide was his parish, with houses far asunder. 
But yet he ceased not for rain nor thunder, 
In sickness and in mischief for to visit. 
The farthest in his parish, great and small. 
Upon his feet, and in his hand a staff. 
This noble ensample to his sheep he gave. 
That first he wrought, and afterward he taught. . . » 
And Christ, his lore, and his apostles twelve. 
He taught, but first he followed it himself." 

]i. From Froissart. 

(The Prince of Wales entertains his prisoner, the king of 
France, after the battle of Poitiers in 1356.) 

"When evening was come, the Prince of A^^ales gave a 
supper in his pavilio'^ to the king of France, and to the greater 
part of the princes and barons who were prisoners. The prince 
seated the king of France and his son, the Lord Philip, at an 
elevated and well-covered table ; with them were Sir James de 
Bourbon, the Lord John d'Artois, the earls of Lancarville, of 
Estampes, etc. The other knights and squires were placed at 
diff'erent tables. The prince himself served the king's table as 
well as the others, with every mark of humility, and would not 



392 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

sit down at it, in spite of all his entreaties for him to do so, 
saying, that ' he was not worthy of such an honour, nor did it 
appertain to him to seat himself at the table of so great a king, 
or of so valiant a man as he had shown himself by his actions 
that day.' He added also with a noble air, ' Dear sir, do not 
make a poor meal because the almighty God has not gratified 
your wishes in the event of this day ; for, be assured that my 
lord and father will show you every honor and friendship in his 
power. ... In my opinion, you have cause to be glad that the 
success of this battle did not turn as you desired ; for you have 
this day acquired such high renown for prowess, that you have 
surpassed all the best knights on your side ; I do not, dear sir, 
say this to flatter you, for all those of our side who have seen 
and observed the actions of each party have unanimously al- 
lowed this to be your due, and decree you the prize and garland 
for it.' At the end of this speech, there were murmurs of 
praise heard from every one ; and the French said the prince 
had spoken truly and nobly, and that he would be one of the 
most gallant princes of Cliristendom, if God should grant him 
life to pursue his career of glory. When they had supped and 
sufficiently regaled themselves, each departed to his own lodg- 
ing with the knights and squires tliey had captured. Those 
that had taken them asked what they could pay for their ran- 
soms, without much hurting their fortunes, and wiUingly be- 
lieved whatever they told them ; for they declared publicly that 
they did not wish to deal harshly with any knight or squire, that 
his ransom should be so burdensome as to prevent his following 
the profession of arms, or advancing his fortunes." 

The Common People in England. 

"It is customary in England, as well as in several other 
countries, for the nobility to have great privileges over the 
commonalty, whom they keep in bondage, that is, they are 
bound by law and custom to plough the lands of gentlemen, to 
liarvest the grain, to carry it home to the barn, to thresh and 
winnow it ; they are also bound to harvest the hay and carry it 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 393 

home. . . . The evil-disposed . . . began to rise, saying they 
were too severely oppressed ; that at the beginning of the 
world there were no slaves, and that no one ought to be treated 
as such, unless he had committed treason against his lord, as 
Lucifer had done against God ; but they had done no such 
thing, for they were neither angels nor spirits, but men formed 
after the same likeness with their lords, who treated them as 
beasts. This they would not longer bear, but had determined 
to be free ; and if they laboured or did an}- work for their lords, 
they would be paid for it." 

i. From Sermon of John Ball. 

"Good people, . . . things will never be well in England so 
long as goods be not in common, and so long as there be vil- 
leins and gentlemen. By what right are they whom we call 
lords greater folk than we ? On what grounds have the}' de- 
served it? Why do they hold us in serfage? If we all came 
of the same father and mother, of Adam and Eve, how can 
they sa}' or prove that they are better than we, if it be not that 
they make us gain for them by our toil what they spend in their 
pride ? They are clothed in velvet and warm in their furs and their 
ermines, while we are covered with rags. They have wine, and 
spices, and fair bread ; and we oat-cake and straw, and water 
to drink. They have leisure and fine houses ; we have pain and 
labour, the rain and the wind in the fields. And yet it is of us 
and of our toil that these men hold their state." 

j. From the Memoirs of Philip de Comines. 

"The hearts of kings being in the hands of God Almighty 
alone, he disposes them in such important affairs as is most 
proper for the events which He, in His heavenly wisdom, has 
determined to bring to pass. For, certainly, had it been His 
Divine pleasure that our king should have continued in the 
resolution which he had formed before the Duke of Burgundy's 
death, the wars which have since occurred, and still continue, 
would never have happened. But we were not ready on either 
hand to receive so lasting a peace." 



394 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



" For if great princes once get possession of any towns or 
castles, though they may belong to their nearest neighbors . . . 
neither natural reason, nor love of our neighbor, nor anything 
else . . . will prevail with them to restore them ; and after they 
have once published some artful reasons or specious pretence 
for keeping them, everybody applauds their reasons, especially 
those that are nearest about them. . . . The brutishness and 
ignorance of princes are very dangerous and dreadful, because 
the happiness or misery of their subjects depends wholly upon 
them. . . . Who can apply any remedy in this case but God 
alone." 

' ' There is a necessity that every prince or great lord should 
have an adversary to restrain and keep him in humility and 
fear, or else there would be no living under them, nor near 
them." 

k. Astrological Prescription. 

" Engrave the image of Jupiter, who is a man with a ram's 
head, upon tin or upon a white stone, at the day and hour of 
Jupiter, when he is at home, as in Sagittarius, or in the Pisces, 
or in his exaltation, as in Cancer, and let him be free from all 
obstruction, particularly from the evil looks of Saturn or of 
Mars ; let him be rapid, and not burnt by the sun ; in a word, 
wholly auspicious. Carry this image upon you, made as above, 
and according to all the above-mentioned conditions, and you 
will see things which will surpass your belief." 

STUDY ON 6. 

From a, /, and k, what opinion do you gain of the scientific knowl- 
edge of the period ? (Compare laws, p. 383.) For what objects was 
much of it pm'sued ? To what sciences would alchemy lead ? Astrol- 
ogy ? What opinion do you gain of the attitude of the people towards 
the Church ? What class of the clergy seems to have excited this 
attitude? What reason can you give for this? In what couutrios 
is this feeling expressed most strongly? (Compare lists.) What 



LATER :MEr)I.*:VAL PERIOD. 395 

abuses seem to have existed within the Church? What strong senti- 
ments are expressed in regard to hunuxn equality? What social 
oppression is strongly felt? By what class? With W'hat other feel- 
ing does it appear associated ? What excuse for this feeling in the 
laws and organizations of the period? (See h also.) 

What class on the whole do you judge were the oppressors of the 
period? Proofs. Was Dante Guelf or Ghibelin? What fact is 
illustrated by each quotation from him? INIake a list of knightly 
qualities and accomplishments. In what extract do we see an illus- 
tration of the chivalric spirit ? In Avhat way was this spirit limited ? 
What was the great desire of each of the characters described by 
Chaucer? What characteristics of the period illustrated by each 
extract? To what class did Froissart belong in his sympathies? 
AMiat proof do these extracts give of the pope's endeavor to direct 
the thought and knowledge of his time ? What would h, i, j, and k 
teach you of the history of this period, if you had no other source of 
information ? 

In General. — What is your judgment in regard to the jus- 
tice of applying the term "Dark Ages" to this period? Why? 
"What nations lead during this time iu politics, in artj in material 
civilization ? 



396 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

D. RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION ERA, 
1492-1648 (1640 IX England). 

Discovery of America to Treaty of WeMplialia. 

" Thundering and bursting, In torrents, in waves ; 
Carolling and shouting O'er tombs, amid graves ; 
See on the cumbered plain, Clearing a stage, 
Scattering the past about. Comes a new age ! 

All tilings begin again ; Life is their prize ; 

Earth with their deeds they fill ; Fill with their cries." 

ElMERSON. 

" Up friends, forsake these secondary schools, 
Which give grains, units, inches for the whole ! 

******* 
The world's the book where the eternal Sense 
Wrote his own thoughts. . . . 
Turn we to read the one original." 

Campanella. 



STUDY ON REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA, 
1490-1648. 

Chief contemporary sources of history: State papers of 
various European courts, consisting of treaties, diph)niatic 
correspondence, official records ; laws ; contemporary liter- 
ature of France, England, and Germany ; contemporary 
works of art, consisting chiefl}^ of Italian and German 
l)ictures ; formulated creeds and confessions of various 
sects, such as the Augsburg Confession, Theses of Luther, 
Scotch Covenant ; Hakluyt's Voyages ; i)rivate letters and 
diaries. 

Chief modern authorities in English : In general. Dyer's 
Modern History; Heeren's Works upon the period; Von 
Raumer's History of the vSixteenth and Seventeenth Cem 



398 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

turies; for the Reformation, Ranke's Era of the Reforma- 
tion; for the Thirty Years' War, Gardiner; for Spain, 
Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabelhi, and Philip II.; for 
the Netherlands, the works of Motley; for England, 
Green's History of the English People, Gardiner's England 
under the Stuarts, and Civil War, Ranke's Seventeenth 
Century in England ; for France, Guizot, Crowe ; for Italy, 
Symond's Italian Renaissance. 




RENAISSANCE FRIEZE -PATTERN FROM A VENETIAN CHURCH. 

Questions on Map. — Compare this map with that of Europe in 
the twelfth century ; — what great changes have occurred, and in what 
countries ? What part of the feudal organization has been strength- 
ened by these changes? How does the map show this ? What great 
differences between such states as France, Spain, and England, and 
such states as you studied in ancient Greece ? What was the centre 
of political power in the Greek, and later in the Roman state ? 
What fact constitutes the basis of power in these states of the 
Renaissance ? 

1. Events and Movements of Period, 

a. In general. 

Three great facts characterize this epoch: 1st, a revolt 
from the ecclesiastical headship of Rome, known as the Prot- 
estant Reformation; as a consequence of this revolt, Germany 
and England are entirely separated from the Latin Church, 
and form independent churches under the control of their 
own political rulers ; 2d, a great artistic and literary out- 
burst, called the Renaissance^l?iYgGlj influenced by the study 
of ancient art and poetry ; and 3d, the foundation of Euro- 



1493 

TO 

1519. 



REFOKjNIATION and renaissance ERxV. 399 

pean colonies along the American coast and in the newly 
opened East (India). In the first of tliese movements 
Germany leads ; in the second, Italy ; in the third, Spain 
and Portugal, the former opening the Western, the latter 
opening the Eastern Avorld to Enrope. 

h. Imperial (German). 

Maximilian, emperoi'-elect, takes the title of 
King of Germany. — Luther, an Augustinian 
monk, attacks the abuses of Church practice 
and certain points of doctrine by ninety-five theses, which 
he nails upon the church-door in Wittenberg, and declares 
himself ready to defend (1517); this act is held to date 
the opening of the Reformation. — Zwingli preaches ref- 
ormation doctrines in Switzerland. 

Charles V.^ Emperor ; — from his grandfather, 
Ferdinand, he inherits Spain, Sardinia, and the 
Two Sicilies ; through his grandfather, Maxi- 
milian, he is archduke of Austria, and is thus naturally 
elected emperor; from his grandmother he inherits the 
Netherlands. — Pope and emperor force the Florentines to 
receive as rulers the Medici, to whom they give the title 
of Grand Dukes of Tuscany ; the popes gain new Italian 
territory, claiming it as overlords of reverting fiefs. — The 
pope issues a bull against Luther, who burns it (1520). 
Luther is condemned by a diet of the empire at Worms, 
but is protected by his own sovereign, the Elector of 
Saxony, and many princes and cities receive his doctrines; 
a peasant's Avar against Church and State breaks out, and 
proves cruel and difficult to end. — The Diet of Spires 
(Speyer, 1529) passes a decree against any change in the 
Church ; against this the Lutherans protest^ and are hence- 
forth called Protestants. 

The Turks meanwhile push northward, seize Belgrade, 



1519 

TO 
1556. 



400 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

besiege Vienna, and conquer large x^arts of Hungary. The 
Hungarian king perishing in battle, his title passes into 
the hands of the House of Austria, who thus become rulers 
of Bohemia and Hungary. During this same time the 
emperor is disputing with the king of France over various 
Italian territories. 

Protestants make a formal statement of their faith in 
the Confession of Augsburg (1530), and the Protestant 
cities and princes form the League of Smalkald. — Calvin 
preaches Protestantism in its Presbyterian form in Geneva; 
his followers spread through France under the name of 
Huguenots, while Knox preaches his doctrines in Scot- 
land. — The Council of Trent is called by pope and 
emperor, in order to reform practical abuses in the Church, 
and fix its doctrines more definitely (1545). 

After the death of Luther (1546) war breaks out be- 
tween the Catholic and Protestant princes of the empire ; 
war closed by the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which al- 
lows the prince or ruling power of each state to establish 
the religion of his own domains at his own will. 

While war thus goes on wUhin the empire, the king of 
France and the emperor are fighting over their border 
territories; in the end, France wins from the empire the 
bishoprics of Metz, Toul, Verdun. 

A Protestant union and a Catholic league are 
formed under leadership of strong princes of the 
empire. 

The Thirty Years' War. — The king of 
Bohemia, who becomes Emperor Ferdinand the Sec- 
ond, oppresses and persecutes his Protestant sub- 



1556 

TO 

1618. 



1618 

TO 
1648- 



jects; Catholic princes join the emperor, Protestant princes, 
the people ; general war follows between the Catholic and 
Protestant princes of Germany. The emperor with his 
generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, is gaining the upper hand; 



I 



REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 401 

the Protestant princes, forming a Protestant league, get 
help from the Protestant king of Denmark; when he is 
defeated, Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, leads the 
Protestants, and with him they are for a time successful : 
but at the battle of Lutzen (1632) he is killed. 

The French now enter the war, giving very effective aid 
against the emperor, and in 1648 affairs are settled by the 
Treaty of Westphalia, whose important conditions are as 
follows ; — 

A general and complete amnesty to political offenders, 
and a restoration of their territories, rights, and dignities ; 
every estate of the empire allowed to vote in the Diet, 
which is to be summoned regularl}^ ; the vote of the ma- 
jority to stand as its decision, except in case of questions 
of religion ; each prince to be sovereign in his own province, 
under the emperor, — that is, his territorial power is com- 
plete ; he can levy tolls and taxes, coin money, and make 
alliances as he himself pleases ; the right of each prince 
to rule the religious affairs of his own province reestab- 
lished with modifications; an end put to the ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction of Catholics over Protestants. 

The entire independence of the republics of Switzerland 
and the United Provinces (Holland, Netherlands) is ac- 
knowledged by the emperor and by Europe ; Sweden re- 
ceives some territor}^ in the north of Germany; France 
gains a footing in Elsass (Alsace) ; the lands of Branden- 
burg are increased. 

c. hnperial (Italy). 

Savonarola, leader of the democratic party in Florence, 
preaches and popularizes asceticism, and violently attacks 
the papacy. Charles VIII. of France invades Ttal}^ and 
conquers the kingdom of Naples. Wars between the 
empire, France, and Spain over Naples, end in 1504 in the 



402 



STUDIES liX aENEKAL HISTOKY. 




Portugal , England , Scotland , Ireland ,, Norway , Russia* 

t3ermany(Tbe Empirel , France , Lands of Churchy 

Holland , Switzerland .Venetian Republic , Genoese Republi 



y//////A = Spanish Possessions » Poland. 

I>^ " X x| = Mohammedan Lands , Denmark. 

= Swedish Possessions 

= The Imperial Boundary 



F = Tranche Comte, 

M = Milan. 

T = Tuscany. 

LL = Lorraine. 



KEFOKMATION AND KENAISSANCE ERA. 403 

Spanish possession of the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand, king of 
Spain, Lewis, king of France, Maximilian, eniperor-elect, 
and Pope Julius the Second, form the League of Cambray 
(1508) in order to divide the territories of Venice between 
them. War between Venice and the League ; Venice is 
weakened, but survives. War between the members of the 
League, ending in the expulsion of the French from Italy. 
Francis I. of France attempts a new invasion of Italy ; 
war between him and the pope and emperor; Francis is 
forced to renounce his Italian claim to the emperor, Charles 
v., who is crowned king of Italy. The smaller Italian 
states are ruled by the dictates of pope and emperor, who 
support their influence by force of arms. 

STUDY ON I, a, h, AND c. 

AVliat tendencies and events of the later mediaeval period culminate 
ill each of the three i>reat facts named in a? What historic or geo- 
graphic reason can you give for tlie special lead taken respectively by 
Italy, Germany, Spain, and Portugal ? What fact makes Charles Y. 
the strongest monarch of liis age ? Plow does America compare in 
political value with his other possessions ? In Avhat does its value 
consist? What tendencies and facts noticed in the fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries make Luther's success certain ? Judging from 
these facts, is the Reformation movement dependent on Luther for its 
strength ? What facts prove that he is a representative man of his own 
time ? What historical fact or relation tends to explain the popularity 
of the Reformation movement in German}^? What quality of Teu- 
tonic character? Plow does Charles Y. acquire the right to govern 
the lands of Spain, Austria, Naples, and the Netherlands? This 
fact plainly shows that land is regarded by the monarchs of Europe in 
what way? Prove from the facts of the century 1519-1618 that the 
imperial jDower in Germany is exceedingly weak. In whose hands is 
the political power of the empire? What event proves that the 
Church is in need of reformation ? Why should the religious differ- 
ences of European states cause war between them? AYhat injustice 
in the Peace of Augsburg ? What plausible reason could be given 
to sustain this injustice ? Of what tendencies is the Thirty Years' 



404 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

War the culmination ? Do you consider this war important or not, 
and why ? What proofs have we in the Peace of Westphalia that 
the emperor is weaker than any of his neighbors ? How was it for 
the interest of France to fight against the emperor? How would 
you describe the government of Germany at the close of this war? 
Judging from c, what is the great ambition of the European 
powers ? When we say European powders at this period, what have 
we in mind? 

d. Spanish. 

Age of Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus 
takes possession of his American discoveries in 
the name of the sovereigns of Spain and the Holy 



1493 

TO 

1516. 



Catholic faith. Florida is discovered and claimed for Spain. 
Ferdinand conquers Granada and that part of Navarre 
lying south of the Pyrenees ; holds Sardinia and Sicily, 
and conquers Naples from its rival claimants. 

Age of Charles I. (^Emperor Charles K). Con- 
quest of Mexico for Spain by Cortez ; of Peru by 
Pizarro : Chili and New Granada are also con- 



1516 

TO 

1556. 



quered and claimed by Spaniards. — Negro slaves are im- 
ported from Africa to work the silver mines of the New 
World, under Spanish direction. 

Age of Philip II. Persecution of Moors, Jews, 
and Christian heretics (Protestants) ; Philip de- 
crees that death shall be the penalty for any one 



TO 
1648. 



who sells, buys, or reads a book proscribed by the Church. 
The Inquisition condemns heretics to the lire by whole- 
sale (^autos-defe').- — Protestantism spreads throuo-h the 
Northern Netherlands (Holland), where the tyranny 
and intolerance of Philip rouse all classes to revolt. 
Thoug4i quiet is restored, Philip sends the Duke of Alva, 
with 20,000 Spanish troops, into the Netherlands, and 
taxes and restricts them more than before. New revolt 
breaks forth, ending in the practical independence of the 



KEFOKMATION ANJ> RENAISSANCE KKA. 405 

seven northern provinces of the Netherlands under the 
rule of William of Orange. (1579). 

The help rendered to the Netherlands by Elizabeth of 
England, together with her treatment of the Catholic 
Mary Queen of Scots, induces Philip to fit out against 
England the Great Armada. This famous fleet is de- 
stroyed partly by terril)le tempests, and partly by English 
seamanship and valor (1558). — 800,000 peaceful and in- 
dustrious Moors (Moriscoes) are expelled from Spain. 

e. Portuguese. 

Portugal (Vasco da Gam a, 1498) discovers the Eastern 
Ocean route to India round the Cape of Good Ho^dc; colo- 
nizes all along the coasts of Guinea, Liberia, Mozambique, 
and the Congo in Africa ; in Asia, places commercial sta- 
tions QfactoiHei) on the eastern and western coasts of 
India (Malabar and Golconda"), and in Java, Sumatra, and 
the other East India Islands ; in America, she occupies 
and settles Brazil. 

/. Butch. 

Holland, having become practically independent, from 
1602 onward, begins to send out trading expeditions to 
America and India. In 1613 the Dutch establish a trading 
colony (New Amsterdam) on Manhattan Island, thus be- 
coming the founders of Neiv Yoi^k City. They make vari- 
ous settlements along the Hudson (notably Albany), and 
also in Connecticut, whence, however, they are driven by 
the English. 

g. French. 

Age of Francis I. Francis makes a "Con- 
cordat " with the pope, by which he gains the 
right to appoint bishops and abbots, on condition 



1493 1 



406 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. 

of giving the pope the first year's revenue from their lands. 

Persecutes the Huguenots. Wars with Charles V. (see h)\ 
Continued persecution of the Huguenots ; war 
of the French king with Charles V., resulting in 
the French seizure of Metz, Toul, Verdun, three 

bishoprics lying toward the Rhine. France is largely 

ruled by Catherine de Medici, the Italian queen-mother. 

Age of the Civil Wars and Heyirij IV. The 
period is full of the civil wars of Catholics and 
Protestants, the former under the lead of the 



1547 

TO 

1563. 



1563 

TO 

1610. 



French monarchs, the latter headed by great nobles, the 
chief among whom is Henry of Navaii-e. In 1572 the 
king, urged on by the queen-mother, orders the 3Iassacre 
of St. Bartholomew., in which more than 30,000 Huguenots 
are slain. In the course of these wars, the succession falls 
to Henry of Navarre (Henr;^IV.), who is not recognized 
as king until 1593, when he professes himself a Roman 
Catholic. He finally brings the conflict to a close by the 
Edict of Nantes, which gives political equality to Catho- 
lics and Huguenots, and allows the freedom of the new 
faith to certain nobles and to the citizens of certain towns, 
but forbids its exercise at the Court or in Paris, or in any 
cities where bishops and archbishops reside. 

French colonies settle Quebec and Port Royal (Annap- 
olis in Nova vScotia). 

Age of Richelie^i and Mary de Medici (Italian 
queen-mother). States-general called together 
I """"• I in 1614 for the last time before the French Revo- 
lution (1T89). Wars of king with the nobles and with 
the Huguenots ; wars with Spain over territories in Italy, 
and on the Spanish-French frontier ; alliance with German 
princes against the emperor in the Thirty Years' War ; at 
the Peace of Westphalia, new gains of territory Rhine- 
ward (see p. 402). 



1610 

TO 
1648. 



1492 

TO 

1509. 



IIEFOJIMATIOX AND KKNAISSANCK FAlX. 4<)T 

111 America, the progressive settleiiient of St. Lawrence 
region and of Xova Scotia (Acadia^. Many Huguenots 
emigrate. — Constant qnarrels with Englisli over disputed 
territories. 

N. B. During all this period, it may be considered that 
there is a constant struggle between the crown and the 
powerful nobles. 

h. English. 

Contests of king and parliament; the wdiole 
North American coast claimed by reason of the 
voyages of the Cabots, wdio discovered uncertain 
portions of it between Newfouiidhind and Florida. 

Age of Henrg VIII. and Cardinal Wolseg. \ 
Troubles between king and parliament ; quarrel to 
between Henry and the pope because the latter I ^^^^' 
delays and refuses to grant him a divorce from his true and 
lawful wife, Catherine of Aragon ; as a result of this quar- 
rel, Henry denies the right of the pope to meddle in English 
political or civil affairs, and declares himself tlie head of the 
Church in England ; parliament by the Act of Supremacy 
declares the English king "Protector and only Supreme 
Head of the Church and Clergy in England." Refusal to 
acknowledge this is punished with death. The English 
monasteries are visited, examined, dissolved, and their 
property is confiscated to the king. An English translation 
of the Bible (Tyndale's) is published by order of the king, 
and parliament defines the doctrines which must be held 
by the English Church, 

Edicard VI. (Protestant') and " Bloody Mary " 
(Catholic). Reformed doctrines introduced ; par- 
liament orders a uniform service throughout the 
churches, and the king introduces the book of common 
prayer. — Quarrels in regard to the succession. — Persecu- 



154T 

TO 

1558. 



TO 
1603. 



408 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

tioii of Protestants by Maiy; liundrecls burned at the 
stake. England loses Calais to France, 
j^^g I Age of Elizabeth. The English Church is fully 
established with a uniform service, uniform 
prayers and confessions, arranged by the parlia- 
ment and the queen, who is the recognized head of the 
'' Established Churcli/'- The government has much trouble 
with the "Dissenters" from this arrangement; contests 
arise in Scotland between the Catholics, headed by Queen 
Mary, and the Protestants, headed by John Knox. The 
crown of Elizabeth is claimed by Mary, who is supported by 
a strong party, and in whose behalf conspiracies and plots 
are constantly formed, until Elizabeth finally orders her 
beheaded. — Sjjanish Armada (see p. 405). — Virginia is ex- 
23lored and claimed for England by Paleigh ; Sir Francis 
Drake sails round the world, and claims for his queen the 
northern Californian coast; the East India Company is 
chartered for India trade. — Troubles arise in Ireland. 

Age of the Stuai-ts (James I. and Charles Z). 
The House of Tudor ending with Elizabeth, 
James, son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeds to 



1603 

TO 

1649. 



the thrones of both England and Scotland ; laws are passed 
unfavorable and grievous to Puritans, Roman Catholics, 
and other dissenters from the English Church. The king 
imposes taxes without consent of parliament ; quarrels 
between king and parliament as to the amount of money 
to be granted to the king. — New translation of the Bible 
made under the direction and authorization of the king 
("King James' Version"). — ^ Constant and increasing 
quarrel of king and parliament on the question of the right 
of the king to impose taxes and laws without parliamentary 
consent. This quarrel continues under Charles the First 
until parliament, unable to obtain any redress of grievances 
from Charles, and led on bv Sir John Eliot, Oliver Crom- 



KEFOHMATION A^'D KENAISSANCE ERA. 409 

well, Pym, Hampden, and their supporters, assumes con- 
trol of the army, and declares war in behalf of the public 
safety (1642). In Scotland, the "Solemn League and 
Covenant " to defend the principles of the Reformation 
and resist innovation is signed by large numbers, and the 
Scottish " Kirk " is formed, a church independent of the 
State. — Civil war follows, between the king, supported by 
loyalists and followers of the established Church, on tlie 
one hand, and the parliament, supported by dissenting 
troops under the lead of Cromwell, on the other. The king 
taken prisoner, refuses the terms imposed ; the Scots de- 
liver him to parliament, who judge him guilty of death, and 
Jan. 30, 1649, Charles T. is executed. During this time 
Virginia, Maryland, Massachusetts (Boston and vicinity), 
Rhode Island, and Connecticut are colonized, largely by 
those who do not find sufficient religious liberty at home ; 
these colonies obtain their charters from the king, who 
grants them sometimes to nobles like Lord Baltimore, 
sometimes to trading corporations like the Plymouth 
Company. 

STUDY ON I, d-7i. 

What proofs in these events that Spain, France, and England haA e 
become strong, centrahzed feudal monarchies? Give examples from 
each comitry. AVhat proves their strength? Their centralization? 
Their feudal character? Why should reading become a crime? 
What political danger in it for an absolute monarch ? For the unity 
of the Church? What historic and what geographical reason for the 
maritime and commercial activity of the Dutch ? What historic anta- 
gonism strengthened the hostility of Catholics and Protestants in 
France? What two causes would you name for the establishment 
of an independent Church in England? What oppression is con- 
nected with this establishment ? What would you name as the two 
causes of the "civil wars" in England? When did each of these 
causes begin to work? By what measures could these wars have been 
averted? On whom does their responsibility rest? In what ways 
did the Stuarts violate the '' Great Charter." 



410 vSTUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

GENERAL STUDY ON I. 

What are the two leading interests of European nations ? Which 
of these two appears to you the stronger ? Support your opinion by 
facts. Prove that these interests are common to peoples and their 
kings. During this age, in what two ways does America serve Europe ? 
What great change in the relation of Church and State tends to take 
place in this period ? In what countries is that change completely 
made ? AVhat are the political units of Europe in this period ? What or 
who represents these units ? What are the bonds of union within them? 

2. List of Fatnous Works, Structures, Foundations, In- 
ventions, Discoveries, Fnterj^rises, and linprovements 
of the Period. 

a. Literary Works. 

English dramas, based on historical and romantic stories, 
drawn from English, classic, and Italian sources ; many of 
these dramas Avere modelled on the laws of the Greek 
stage, but their characters, language, and situations were 
taken from actual, contemporary life, while they were 
written to be acted before audiences containing people of 
all ranks. Their most famous authors were William 
Shakespeare, the son of a well-to-do English trader, and 
Ben Jonson, the son of a clergyman. — The poem of the 
'' Faery Queen," written in honor of Queen Elizabeth, and 
embodying contemporary ideas in religion and politics, and 
a number of contemporary characters, under allegorical 
forms of knights and ladies and dragons of mediseval ro- 
mance ; many of the allusions and illustrations, however, 
are classic ; its author was Edmund Spenser, of gentle birth 
and classic university training. He and his contemporaries 
greatly enriched the English language by introducing new 
poetical forms, suggested by or copied from Italian models. 
Of these the most famous and useful were the sonnet and 
blank verse measure. — The Italian poems of " Orlando 
Furioso *' and the ''Jerusalem Delivered"; the subject 



KEFOKMATiON AND RENAISSANCE EKA. 411 

of the former was taken from the inediseval romances con- 
cerning Roland, the nephew of Charlemagne ; its author 
was Ariosto, a man of good Italian family, and a finely 
educated Latinist. The latter is based upon the rescue of 
Jerusalem by the crusaders, and its hero is Godfrey of 
Bouillon : its author, Tasso, was of good family, and 
tinely educated in the classics. — The Portuguese poem of 
the " Lusiad," by Camoens, the son of a sea-captain, but a 
man of classical training, who desired to be to his own 
country what Homer was to Greece. Though tlius in- 
spired, the poem abounds in scenes and allusions drawn 
from contemporary life, action, and circumstances. 

English essays on various practical, social, moral, and 
intellectual subjects ; the most famous of these are those 
written by Bacon, the son of a noble house, and highly 
educated at Cambridge University. — French essays, simi- 
lar to the above, written by Montaigne, a man of baronial 
rank and an admirable Latinist, 

Romances, originating for the most part in France and 
Spain, taking their characters and motives from the chiv- 
alrous life and legend of the middle ages, their chief 
interest lying in love and adventure. — " Don Quixote," a 
Spanish romance written to satirize the knights and ladies, 
and improbable situations of the popular romance. Its 
author, Cervantes, was a poor but well-born Spaniard. — 
" Gargantua and Pantagruel," a satirical romance written 
by Rabelais, a French priest and physician, thoroughly 
trained in linguistic study. This work attacks, under 
fictitious names and a fanciful plot, all the civil and relig- 
ious authorities of the time. — The "Praise of Folly," a 
satire on the foolishness of all classes of society, but par- 
ticularly fearless in its attacks upon the Church. Its 
author, Erasmus, was a Dutchman of obscure birth, but of 
admirable classical training. 



412 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOliY. 

Translations of the Bible made from Latin and Greek 
into the languages of modern Europe ; of these the most 
famous are King James' Version (see p. 408) and Luther's 
German translation. — Chapman's translation of Homer 
into English. — The whole age is famous for its transla- 
tions, from both classical and modern tongues, as Avell as 
from the Arabic. 

h. Works of Art (Painting and Sculpture). 

The frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Cliapel of the 
Vatican palace, painted for Pope Julius 11. ; subjects, 
scriptural ; the tomb of the Medici, made for the Medici 
family in Florence, adorned with portrait-statues studied 
from the life, and with allegorical figures ; the statue of 
DaA'id, executed for the city of Florence ; that of Moses, 
made for Pope Julius 11. All these were the work of 
Michael Angelo Buonarotti, a man of noble birth, trained 
by one of the best artists of the time, and a thorough stu- 
dent of the remains of Greek art and of the living human 
anatomy. — Frescoes painted for Pope Julius IL, in vari- 
ous rooms and passages of the Vatican ; subjects, scrip- 
tural, their style largely influenced by the study of Greek 
and Roman art ; pictures of the Virgin Mary, at various 
notable periods of her life, and pictures of the Holy 
Family, executed, for the most part, for churches ; figures 
in these pictures studied from real life ; frescoes for vari- 
ous palaces in Rome, executed from the study of living 
models, on various mythological and allegorical subjects; 
portraits of wealthy ecclesiastics and nobles; — this work 
was all done by Raphael, born of a family of artists, 
and trained by the best artistic masters. — The fresco- 
painting of "The Last Supper," painted for a Milanese 
convent by Leonardo da Vinci, a man of noble birth and 
artistic training ; this same artist also painted many por- 



REFOKMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 413 

traits. — The scriptural, allegorical, and historical paint- 
ings of Rubens, a German artist, trained in Italy, and 
employed to decorate clmrches and palaces in the Nether- 
lands and in France. — The portraits, studies from every- 
day life, and historical and scriptural paintings of Rem- 




FOUITTAINS HALL 
A Yorkshire lord's country-house of the seventeenth centurj'. 

brandt, a miller's son, trained by artists in Holland. — - 
The paintings and engravings of Albert Diirer, the son 
of a German goldsmith, educated to his art by working 
with painters, and by travel in Italy and Germany. His 
subjects are largely scriptural and allegorical, but their 



414 STUDIES IN gexp:kal history. 

details are studied from actual contemporary life. — The 
portrait-pictures of tlie younger Holbein, and of Vandyck. 
Vandyck was court-jjainter of Charles I., and acquired 
his art by Italian study and travel and by the training of 
Rubens; Henry YHI. was the patron of Holbein, who 
studied with his father, a German painter, and travelled; 
his " Dance of Death," one of the most popular works of 
the time, was a series of pictures designed to show the 
equality of all men and the vanity of human pride. 

Aside from these greatest works, this age produced 
numberless pictures of a high order of merit, ordered by 
kings, popes, cardinals, princes, and wealthy merchants, 
for the adornment of palaces and churches. 

c. Buildings^ JSstablisJmients^ a)id Foundations. 

The Escorial (see p. 416). — The Louvre, a royal palace 
built by Francis I., who erected other great palaces in various ■ 
places, notably that of Fontainebleau, to which was attached I 
a great royal forest, miles in extent, kept to give the king \ 
and his court the pleasures of the hunt. — The Tuileries, . 
built in Paris by the queen-mother, Catherine de Medici, ij 
and continued by Henry lY. — Whitehall Palace, built in; 
London for the Stuarts. — Many of the famous palaces of^ 
Genoa, Venice, Florence, Rome, date back to this period ; 
they were built by wealthy or noble families, often by mer-d 
chants, and were adorned with fine marbles and alabas--^ 
ters, enriched with carving and inlaid work, and often 
contain masterpieces of painting. — Many of the fine Eng- 
lish country-houses also belong to this time (see Fountains 
Hall for typical example). 

St. Peter's at Rome (see p. 417). — Cathedrals in Sego- 
via, Salamanca, Saragossa. 

Xew colleges added to the universities (»f Oxford and 
Cambridge ; schools for elementary instruction, thicou- 



REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 



415 




416 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 



nected with the Church, established in Florence (Savona- 
rola), Germany (Luther), England (Colet), Scotland 
(Knox), Geneva (Calvin). 

Manufactures of fine pottery established and aided bj 




THE BSOORIAL 

This building was erected near Madrid "by Philip II- in consequence of a vow made in 
battle. It is at once a palace, a mausoleum, a monastery, and a church. It contains 
a library of 130,000 volumes, and thousands of Arabic Ms». 



the wealth of kings and nobles, in Italy, France, Ger- 
many, and Holland. — Tapestry manufactures established 
in France by Francis 1. and Henry IV. The latter nn- 



iiEFOKMATION AND llENAiSSA:NCE EKA. 417 




418 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTOUY. 

ported from Ital}' skilled workmen in gold and silk. 
Manufactures of wool firmly established in England. 

d. Voyages and Enterprises. 

Columbus, a Genoese sailor of plebeian birth, well-read 
in geography and mathematics, with funds furnished by 
Ferdinand and Isabella, the monarchs of Spain, sailed west- 
ward to find a route to India ; discovered the West Indies, 
and took possession of them for Spain and the Church. — 
The Cabots, sailing under the auspices of Henry YII., 
discovered the mainland of North America, and opened the 
Newfoundland fisheries to English enterprise. — -Spaniards 
and Portuguese, constantly exploring and settling, planted 
colonies through the American islands and coasts lying- 
south of the West Indies. — The Spaniard Balboa crossed 
the Istlimus of Darien, and discovered the Pacific. — Magal- 

T—Q — I haes (Magellan), a Portuguese in Spanish service, 
TO made the first voyage round the Avorld, entering 
the Pacific around Cape Horn. — Pizarro and 
Cortez discovered and conquered — the former Peru, the 
latter Mexico — for Spain. While Spanish and Portu- 
guese thus worked southward, the coasts of North America 
were gradually explored and colonized by English, Dutch, 
and French (see 1). — In the reign of Elizabeth the Avhale- 
fishery was established. 

During this period the Order of Jesuits, or the Order of 
Jesus, was founded by the Spaniard Loyola, with the avowed 
object of turning to the true Roman Catholic faith both 
heretics and heathen. This order rapidly spread, and its 
members, who were men of good education and earnest 
purpose, were found in every part of the world. They 
labored alike to arrest the doctrines of the Reformation 
and to reform the practical abuses of the Church ; they 
bound themselves by the old monastic vows of chastity. 



1533. 



liEFOR.MATION AND KENxVLSSANCE EllA. 419 

poverty, and obedience. As missionaries to the lieatlien, 
they went fearlessly to India, China, Japan, East and West 
Indies, and all the new American coasts. In Paraguay 
the}^ succeeded in Christianizing and civilizing the whole 
native population. 

('. Investigations and Studies. 

The "Novum Organum" of Bacon, — a development of 
the scientific or inductive method of stud}' as opposed 
to the deductive method of Aristotle. Bacon maintained 
that knowledge begins with experience of details, and that 
only by observing and comparing these details can men 
arrive at any trustworthy general truths. This method is 
that now followed in all scientific study. — The astronomi- 
cal discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo. The last 
and greatest was an Italian professor in Ncn-th Italian 
universities ; he invented the telescope, and established 
the fact of the revolution of the earth about the sun ; 
this being directly opposed to the astronomical teaching 
of the Church, he was persecuted, arrested, and silenced 
by the Inquisition. — The revival of the Platonic philoso- 
phy as opposed to that of Aristotle, and the study of the 
original Greek ; these studies were much sympathized in 
and partly urged forward by the reformers, notably ])y 
Erasmus and Melancthon, and by Dean Colet and Sir 
Thomas More, in England. — The philosophical system of 
Descartes, a French mathematician and scientist, who de- 
rived all authority for truth from the statement, " I think, 
therefore I am." — The discovery of the circulation of 
the blood by Harvey, an English physician who had 
studied medicine at Cambridge and in Padua. — The 
study into the principles of international law, and the 
foundation of that study as a science, by the Dutchman, 
Hugo Grotius. 



420 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

/. Inventions and Improvements. 

Gunpowder came into general use in war, and was com- 
monly employed in the wars of Charles V. and Francis I. 
in connection with cannon and rude forms of firearms. — 
The streets of Paris were publicly lighted. — Stoves, chim- 
neys, glass for windows, coaches, carpets came into com- 
mon use among the well-to-do. 

STUDY ON 2. 

What new forms of literature ajDpear in this age? What new class 
of men ap|)ear as authors ? From what occupation has tliis class been 
freed, and how ? What nation leads in literature ? What influences ap- 
pear in English literature ? What relation between the appearance of 
these influences and the invention of printing ? What influence will the 
translations of the period have upon the unity of Europe ? Why ? AVhat 
is there original in this literature ? What do you find in this literature 
resulting from or sympathizing with the Reformation movement ? 

AVhat art belongs especially to the Renaissance period ? AVhat three 
influences are felt by this art? Illustrate. AA^hat country leads in 
art? AAHiat country stands second? On whom does art depend for 
its success and opportunity ? 

AVhat notable differences between Fountains Hall, p. 413, and Pierre- 
fond Castle, p. :)75? AVhat cause can you assign for the differences? 
What influences can be seen in the Borghese Court, p. 415? In St, 
Peter's, p. 417? In whose hands is the wealth of Europe massed? 
Proofs from b and c. AVhat relation between the military power of 
the kings and their employment of standing armies, and the use of 
wealth by the nobles of the Renaissance ? 

AVhat relation between the Reformation and learning? VAHiat re- 
lation between the kings and the material and commercial progress 
of the period? It is said that the discovery of America and the 
circumnavigation of Africa ruined the prosperity of the Italian cities ; 
why should this be so ? AVhat new route to India, established in our 
own time, might partially restore their importance? What faith 
accompanies the European civilization ? 

AVhat class of studies becomes important in this era? What change 
in the authority to which men look ? AVhat country leads in this 
intellectual movement ? 

AVhom do the inventions and discoveries of this age serve? How 
does each of the mottoes on p. 396 apply to this j)eriod ? 



I KEFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE EKA. 421 

li, Extracts Illustrative of Life and Thought of the 

Time, 

a. From Letters of Columbus to the Spanish Chancellor of the 
Exchequer and to the Spanish Monarchs^ ^^ respecting the 

I, Islands found in the Indies.'' (Hakluyt Society.) 

"Believing that you will take pleasure in hearing of the great 
success which our Lord has granted me in my voyage, I write 
you this letter, whereb}' 3'ou will learn how in thirty-three days' 
time I reached the Indies with the fleet which the most illus- 
trious king and queen, our sovereigns, gave to me, where I 
found very many islands thickly peopled, of all which I took 
possession . . . for their Highnesses. . . . San Domingo is a 
wonder, its mountains and plains, and meadows, and fields 
are so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing, and rearing 
cattle of all kinds, and for building towns and villages. The 
harbours on the coast, and the number and size and wholesome- 
ness of the rivers, most of them bearing gold, surpass anything 
that would be believed. . . . Our Redeemer hath granted this 
victory to our illustrious king and queen, . . . who have ac- 
quired great fame b}^ an event of such high importance, in 

; which all Christendom ought to rejoice, and which it ought to 
celebrate with great festivals and the offering of solemn thanks 

i to the Holy Trinity, . . . both for the great exaltation which 
may accrue to them in turning so many nations to our holy 
faith, and also for the temporal benefits which will bring 

, great refreshment and gain, not only to Spain, but to all 
Christians." 

" . . .In all the countries visited by your Highnesses' ships, 
1 have caused a high cross to be fixed upon every headland, 
and have proclaimed to every nation that I have discovered, the 
lofty estate of your Highnesses and of your court in Spain. 
I also tell them all I can respecting our holy faith and of the 
belief in the holy Mother Church. . . . Your Highnesses have 
become the masters of another world, where our holy faith may 
become so much increased, and whence such stores of wealth 
may be derived." 



422 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKV. 

h. From Sir Walter Ealeigh's AccoHHt of the Discoreri/ of 
Guiana. (Hakliiyt Society.) 

"... The common soldier slial here fight for gold, uiid pay 
himselfe iu steede of pence, with plates of halfe a foote brode, 
whereas he breaketh his bones in other warres for . . . penury. 
Those commanders and Chieftaines, that shoote at honour and 
abundance, shal find there more rich and bewtifuU cities, more 
temples adorned with golden Images, more sepulchers filled with 
treasure, than . . . Cortes found in Mexico, . . . and the shining 
glorie of this conquest will eclipse all those so farre extended 
beanies of the Spanish nation. . . . The soile besides is so 
excellent and so full of rivers, as it will carrie sugar, ginger, 
and all those other commodities which the West Indies hath. . . . 
For whatsoever Prince shall possesse it, shall bee greatest, and 
if the king of Spayne enjoy it, he will become unresistable. . . . 
I trust in God . . . that he which is . . . Lorde of Lords, will 
put it into her hart which is Lad}^ of Ladies to possesse it." 

c. Why the Abbot of W^ardon resigned his Office in L538. 

^^ Item, that whereas we be commanded to have early lecture 
of divinity, we have none ; and when it is read, few or none of 
the monks come to it. Item, I did assign Thomas Londone to 
read the divinity lecture, and he (unknowing to me) did read 
the books of Eccius Omelies, which books be all carnal and of 
a brutal understanding, and treat of many things clean against 
the church of England. And so soon as I had knowledge of 
this, I caused my brother to read the lecture ; and then few or 
none of them would come at him. Item, for as much as I did 
perceive ignorance was a great cause why that these my brethren 
were thus far out of good order and in continual unquietness, 
I caused books of grammar to be bought for each of them, and 
assigned my brother to instruct them, but there would come 
none to him but one Richard Balldok and Thomas Clement. 
Item,, they be in number 15 brethren, and except 3 of them, 
none understand nor know their rule nor the statutes of their 



IIEFOILMATKLN AND KENA188ANCE EH A. 420 

religion. Itfin^ in Lent 1 did send foi-tli Thonuis Wardon in 
this house's business, and he did sit at Shesford all nioht at 
the ale house, and came home in the morning at matin time, 
loi- the which cause I would have ministered correction to him. 
but he declared openly before the convent that I had no au- 
thority to correct him, and stirred them seditiously against me, 
insomuch that Christopher threatened me and my servants. 
Thus I was in such fear that I did command my servants to 
svatcli my chamber 4 nights after till their furj' was somewhat 
assuaged. . . . Item, William Carington, Thomas Bikkliswade, 
Thomas London, John C'lifftone. Christopher Wardon, be com- 
mon drunkards." 

John ap Rice writes about 1535 of the monastery of Bury : 
••Amongst the relics we found much vanity and superstition, 
:is the coals that St. Lawrence was toasted withal, the paring 
of St. Edmund's nails, St. Thomas of Canterbury's penknife 
and boots, and divers skulls for the headache, and pieces of 
the holy cross able to make a holy cross of." 

(1. From Letters of Luther to Pope Leo X. (about L518). 

" I have heard the worst account, most blessed father, touch- 
mg myself, namely, that certain friends have made my name 
most odious to you and yours, as of one who was labouring to 
diminish the authority and power of the keys and of the Su- 
preme Pontiff; and that I am called a heretic, an apostate, a 
traitor, and a thousand other ignominious names. These things 
shock and amaze me ; one thing only sustains me, a sense of 
innocence." 

He goes on to speak thus of his theses : "By what unlucky 
chance it is, that these particular propositions of mine, more 
than all others, should go forth into nearlv all the earth, I am 
at a loss to know. They were set forth here for our use alone, 
and how they should come to everybody's knowledge is incredi- 
ble to me. . . . But what shall I do? Recall them I cannot; 
and yet I see that their notoriety bringeth upon me great odium. 
In order, then, to soften mv adversaries and to gratifv manv 



424 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

frieijds, I send forth these trifles [proofs, etc.] to explain my 
theses. For the greater safety I let them go forth, most blessed 
father, under your name, and under the shadow of your protec- 
tion. Here, all who will may see how sincerely I honour the 
ecclesiastical power and reverence tlie Ke^'s, and also how basely 
I am reproached and belied by my enemies. . . . Save or 
slay, call or recall, approve or disapprove, as it shall best 
please you, I will acknowledge your voice as the voice of Christ 
presiding and speaking in you." 

To his friend Spalatin he writes : "A heretic I will never be ; 
err I may in disputation. But I wish to decide no doctrine; 
only I am not willing to be the slave of the opinions of men." 

To Staupitz, "I see that attempts are made at Rome thai 
the kingdom of truth, ?'.e., of Christ, be no longer the kingdom 
of truth. . . . But I desire to belong to this kingdom. ... I 
learn from experience that the people are sighing for the voice 
of their Shepherd, Christ, and the youth are burning with won- 
derful zeal for the sacred oracles. A beginning is made with 
us in reading of Greek. We are all giving ourselves to the 
Greek for the better understanding of the Bible. We are ex- 
pecting a Hebrew teacher, and the elector hath the business in 
hand." On seeing the first brief which condemned him, he 
exclaims: " It is incredible that a thing so monstrous should 
come from the chief pontiff, especially from Leo X. . . . If, 
in truth, it did come forth from the Eoman court, then I will 
show them their most licentious temerity and their most ungodly 
ignorance." 

e. From the Decrees of the Council of Trent, held 1545-1563 
to ^^ extirpate Heresies and reform Manners.'' (Schaff's 
Creeds.) 
"In order to restrain petulant spirits," it decrees "that no 
one, relying in his own skill, shall in matters of faith . . . wrest- 
ing the Sacred Scriptures to his own senses, presume to inter- 
pret the said Sacred Scripture contrary to that sense which Holy 
Mother Church . . . hath held and doth hold, or even contrary 



REFORJMATION AND llENAISSANCE ERA. 425 

to the unanimous consent of the Fathers." In regard to jus- 
tification by faith, it deckires, " If any one saith tiiat man may 
be justified before God by his own works . . . without the grace 
of God through Jesus Christ, let him be anathema. . . . 

'• If any one saith that, since Adam's sin, the free will of 
man is lost and extinguished, ... let him be anathema. . . . 

" If any one saith, that by faith alone the impious is justified, 
. . . let him be anathema.^* Concerning the real presence of 
Christ in the Eucharist, it decides : — 

" The holy Synod teaches . . . that . . . after the consecra- 
tion of the bread and wine, our Lord Jesus Christ ... is truly, 
really, and substantially contained [within them]." The fol- 
lowing is its doctrine of penance : — 

" If any one denieth that for the entire and perfect remission 
of sins there are required three acts in the penitent ... to wit, 
contrition, confession, and satisfaction . . . or saith that there 
are two parts only ... to wit, the terrors with wliicli the con- 
science is smitten upon being convinced of sin, and the faith 
. . . whereby one believes that his sins are forgiven him through 
Christ, let him be anathema.^' Concerning sacred images, it 
decrees, "that the images of Christ, of the Virgin IMother of 
God, and of the other saints are to be . . . retained . . . and 
that due honor and veneration are to be given them ; not that 
any divinity, or virtue is believed to be in them ... or that 
trust is to be reposed in images. ... In the . . . sacred use of 
images, every superstition shall be removed, all filthy lucre be 
abolished. . . . Let so great care ... be exercised by the 
l)ishops, as that there be nothing seen that is disorderly . . . 
nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous." The council thus 
teaches in regard to indulgences : — 

""^Vhereas, the power of conferring indulgences was granted 
by Christ to the Church . . . the sacred holy Synod . . . con- 
demns with anathema those who either assert that they are 
useless, or who deny that there is in the Church the power of 
granting them. In granting them, however, it desires that . . . 
moderation be observed. . . . And beino- desirous that the 



426 STUDIES Il!T GENERAL HISTOKY. 

abuses which have crept therein, and by occasion of which this 
honorable name of indulgences is blasphemed by heretics, be 
amended and corrected, it ordains . . . by this decree, that all 
evil gains for the obtaining thereof . . . be abolished." 

/. From the Augsburg Confession, ■• 2) resented to tJie Invincible 
Emperor Charles V. Ccesar Augustus^" 1530. (S chaff.) 

"... Inasmucn as your imperial majesty has summoned a 
convention of the Empire at Augsburg, to deliberate in regard 
to aid against the Turk, the most . . . ancient enemy of the 
Christian name and religion, because, moreover, of dissensions 
in the matter of our holy I'eligion ... we now offer . . . the 
confession of our preachers and ourselves. ..." 

Of Justijication. — " Men . . . are justified freely for Christ's 
sake through faith, when they believe that they are received 
into favor, and their sins forgiven." 

Of the Real Presence in the Eucharist. — "The body and 
blood of Christ are truly present, and are communicated to those 
that eat." 

Of Free Will. — ' ' Man's will . . . hath no power to work the 
righteousness of God, or a spiritual righteousness without the 
Spirit of God." 

******** 

" We beg that your imperial majesty would clemently hear 
both what ought to be changed, and what are the reasons that 
the people ought not to be forced against their consciences to 
observe those abuses." 

Of the Marriage of Priests. — "God hath commanded to 
honor marriage ; the laws in all well-ordered connnonwealths 
. . . have adorned marriage . . . but now men are cruelly put 
to death ; yea, and priests also for no other cause but marriage. 
. . . But as no law of man can take away the law of God, no 
more can any vow whatsoever." 

Concerning RelaHon of Church cm d State. — "Seeing, then, 
that the ecclesiastical power concerneth things eternal ... it 
hindereth not the political government any more than the art 



KEFOKMATioX AND RENAISSANCE EilA. 4'2i 

uf siugiug* hiuders politieul governineiit. . . . Wherefore the 
ecclesiastical and civil powers are not to ho confounded. The 
ecclesiastical power hath its own connnandment to preach 
the Gospel. . . . Let it not by force enter into the office of 
another ; let it not transfer worldly kingdoms ... as Christ 
saitli •' my kingdom is not of tlie world." 

(J. Tlte Objects of the Peasants' Wars of the Keformation. 

The peasants of Alsace-Lorraine state their objects in a [)ro- 
gram of which the following are leading and typical points • 

(1) The Gospel ought to be preached according to the truth, 
and not according to the interests of priests and lords. . . . 

(2) The interest on land should be reduced to 5 per cent. . . . 
(4) All waters ought to be free. (5) Forests should return to 
the commune (village of peasants). . . . (7) There should be 
no more serfs. (8) We ourselves will choose our own rulers. 
We will have for our sovereign he who shall seem good to us. 
(9) We will be judged by our peers. . . . 

The German leader, Miinzer, thus taught, — 

'• AYe are all brothers, and have a common father, Adam. . . . 
The land is a common heritage. . . . AVhen have we ever 
yielded our rights in this paternal inheritance ? Who can show 
us the contract b}^ which we have given it up ? " 

'' Never listen to those men who prove to you out of the 
Gospel that you are free, and end by exhorting you to bow 
your head in slavery." 

" Curses on the false priests who have ne^■er understood the 
essence of Christianity I " 

STUDY ON 3, a-y. 

What are the two prominent objects of exploration and conquest in 
the mind of Columbus? N^ame three qualities of character displayed 
by his letters. "Wliat motives for exploration are shown by Sir Walter 
Raleigh? AYhat national rivalry? Taking a and h as typical, what 
classes of men will be drawn to the new countries ? Judging from c, 
what reformation is needed in the Church ? What is the attitude 
of Luther toward the Church? Tow^ard Avhat he believes to be the 



428 . STUDIES IN" GENERAL HISTORY. 

truth? What do these extracts show of his character? What rea- 
son do they show for the attitude of the reformers toward Greek 
scholarship? Compare the decrees of the Council of Trent and the 
statements of the Augsburg Confession . What differences do you find ? 
What points of the Confession most seriously affect the existing* insti- 
tutions of Europe? What are evidently the objects of reformation in 
the minds of the peasants ? Why should they naturally associate 
political and social with religious change ? 

]i. The Spanish Armada. (Hakluyt's " Voyages.") 

"The most notable and great enterprise of all others which 
were in the foresaid yeare atcliieved . . . was the expedition which 
the Spanish king, having a long time determined the same in 
his miude, and having consulted thereabout with the Pope, set 
foorth and undertooke against England and the lowe Countreys, 
to the end that he might subdue the Realme of England, and 
reduce it unto his Catholique Religion. . . . Moreover the 
Spaniards were of opinion that it would bee farre more behove- 
full [fit] for their King to conqiiere England and the lowe 
Countreys all at once, than to be constrained continually to 
maintaine a warlike Navie to defend his East and West Indie 
Fleetes, from the English Drake, and from such like valiant 
enemies. . . . Unto this famous expedition and presupposed 
victorie, many potentates, princes, and honourable personages 
hied themselves ; . . . Likewise the Pope ... as tliej' used to 
do against Turkes and infidels, published a Cruzado, with most 
ample indulgences. . . . Some there be which afflrme that the 
Pope had bestowed the realme of England with the title of 
Defender of the Faith, upon the King of Spains, giving him 
charge to invade it upon this condition, that hee should enjoy 
the conquered realm, as a vassal and tributarie ... to the see 
of Pome. To this purpose, the said Po[)e proffered a million of 
gold, the one-halfe thereof to be paied in readie money, and 
the other lialfe when the realme of England . . . was subdued." 
But the fleet having set sail, were met in the narrow seas 
by the English under Howard and Drake and by them defeated ; 
then, thinking it good " to fetch a compass about Scotland and 



REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 429 

Ireland, and so to returne for Spaine . . . were driven with 
many contrary windes ; at lengtli . . . they were cast by a 
tempest . . . npon divers parts of Ireland, where many of their 
ships perished. ... Of 134 ships, which set saile . . . there 
returned home 53 onely, small and great. . . . 

" For the perpetuall memorie of this matter, the Zelauders 
caused newe coine of silver and brasse to be stamped, which on 
the one side contained . . . this inscription : Glory to God 
ONELY ; and on the other side, the pictures of certaine great 
ships with these words : The Spanish Fleet, and in the cir- 
cumference about the ships : it came, it went, it was. Anno 
1588. That is to say, the Spanish fleet came, went and was 
vanquished this yere ; for which glory be given to God onely. 
Also . . . they have stamped in Holland divers such like coines, 
according to the custome of the ancient Romans. 

" While this wonderfull and puissant Navie was sayling along 
the English coastes, and all men did now plainely see and 
heare that which before they would not be perswaded of, all 
people thorowout England prostrated themselves with humble 
prayers and supplications unto God ; . . . knowing right well, 
that prayer was the onely refuge against all enemies, calamities 
and necessities, and that it was the onely solace and relief e for 
mankinde, oeing visited with affliction and misery. Likewise 
such solemne dayes of supplication were observed thorowout 
the united Provinces. . . . 

" Likewise, the Queenes Majestic herselfe, imitating the ancient 
Romans, rode into London in triumph, in regard of her owne 
and her subjects glorious deliverance. For being attended 
upon very solemnely by all the principall estates and officers of 
her Realme, she was carried ... in a tryumphant chariot, and 
in robes of triumph, from her Palace unto the Cathedrall. . . . 
And all the Citizens of London in their Liveries stood on either 
side of the street, by their severall Companies [guilds], with 
their ensignes and banners, which . . . yeelded a very stately 
and gallant prospect. Her Majestic being entered into the 
Church, together with her Clergy and Nobles gave thanks unto 



430 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

God. . . . And with her owne princely voice she most Chris= 
tianly exhorted the people to doe the same : whereupon the 
people with a loud acclamation wished her a most long and 
happy life, to the confusion of her foes." 

i\ " From a joyjid song of the royall receiving of the Queenes 
7nost excellent majesty i7ito her highnesse campe at Tilbury ^^ 
in Essex; on Thursday and Fryday, the 8th and dth xiug.^ 
1588." (Percy Society.) 

" What princely wordes her grace declarde, 
What gracious thankes in every worde 
To every souldier, none she sparde 
That served anywhere for England. 

* * * * * 

" Then might she see the hats to flye, 
And everie souldeir shouted hye, 
For our good Queene wee'l fight or dye 

On any foe to England, 
And many a Captain kist her hand 
As she passed forth through everie band 
And left her traine far off to stand 

From her marshall men of England 
***** 
" And thus her highnesse went away 
For whose long life all England pray, 
King Henries daughter & our stay, 
Elizabeth, Queene of England." 

■j. Concerning Queen Elizabeth. (Lyly's " Euphues.") 

'- 1 doubt whether our tongue can yeelde wordes to blaze that 
beautie, the perfection whereof none can imagine. . . . [She 
is] equal to Nicatrata in the Greek tongue ; . . . more learned 
in the Latine than Amalasunta ; passing Aspasia in Philoso-' 
phie, who taught Pericles ; exceeding in judgement Themisto- 

1 The place of muster for the forces caUed against the Armada. 



REP^ORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 431 

cles, who instructed Pythagoras ; adde to these qualities, . . . 
the French tonge, the Spanish, the Italian, not meane in every 
one, but excellent in all. ..." 

'•Hir politique government, hir prudent counsaile, hir zeale 
to religion, hir clemencie to those that submit, hir stoutnesse 
to those that threaten, so farre exceed all other vertues, that 
they are more easie to be mervailed at, than imitated." 

k. Of the State of England. (More's " Utopia.") 

"The most part of princes have more delight in warlike 
matters and feats of chivalry than in the good feats of peace ; 
and emplo}' much more study, how by right or by wrong to 
enlarge their dominions, than how well and peacefullj^ to govern 
that the}' have already. . . . 

" There is a great number of gentlemen which cannot be con- 
tent to live idle themselves, like drones, of that which others 
have labored for — their tenants, I mean; whom the}' poll and 
shave to the quick, by raising their rents . . . these gentlemen- 
I say, do not only live in idleness themselves, but also carry abou^ 
with them ... a great flock ... of idle and loitering serving- 
men, which never learned any craft whereby to get their livings. 
... In what parts of the realm doth grow the finest and 
therefore the dearest wool, these noblemen and gentlemen, yea. 
and certain abbots, holy men, no doubt, not contenting them- 
selves with the yearly . . . profits that were wont to grow to 
their forefathers, . . . leave no ground for tillage ; they enclose 
all into pastures {enclosures) ; they throw down houses ; they 
pluck down towns. . . . And, as though you lost no small 
quantity of ground by forests, chases, lands and parks, those 
good holy men turn all dwelling places . . . into desolation. 
. . . The husbandmen be thrust out of their own, ... or by 
wrongs and injuries they be so wearied that they be compelled 
to sell all. . . . Away they trudge'^ I say, out of their known 
and accustomed houses, finding no place to rest in. . . . And 
. . . what can they do but steal and then justly . . .be hanged, 
or else go about a begging ; . . . whom no man will set at work, 



432 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

though they never so willingly proffer themselves thereto. For 
one shepherd .... is enough to eat up that ground with cattle, 
to the occupying whereof about husbandry many hands were 
requisite. . . . For after that so much ground was inclosed 
for pasture, an infinite number of sheep died of the rot ; such 
vengeance God took of their inordinate . . . covetousness ! 
. . . And though the number of sheep increase never so 
fast, yet the price falleth not one mite, because there be so few 
sellers ; for they be almost all come into a few rich men's hands, 
whom no need forceth to sell . . . before they may sell as dear 
as they lust." 

I. Goncernmg the Puritans. (From a letter of Queen Elizabeth 
to James VI. of Scotland.) 
" Let me warn you that there is risen, both in your realm and 
mine, a sect of perilous consequence, such as would have no 
kings but a presbytery. . . . When they have made in our peo- 
ples' hearts a doubt of our religion, . . . what perilous issue 
this may make I rather think than mind to write. ... I pray 
you stop the mouths or make shorter the tongues of such minis- 
ters as dare presume to make prayers in their pulpits for the 
persecuted in England for the Gospel." 

m. The Personal Expenses of James I. and the ^^Remoit- 
strance against Impositions,** 
In a single year (1610) it was estimated that the queen's per- 
sonal expenditure amounted to $70,000, and that of the princes 
and princesses was nearly the same. — Extra wines, $8400. — 
Plate and jewels, abo^je $120,000. — To the ro^^al cofferer, over 
$500,000; to the keeper of the privy purse, $20,000. — From 
1603-1610, James gave away presents worth about $250,000 a 
year. — No less than $460,000 were spent on jewels alone in 
the first four years of his reign. — The receipts meanwhile were 
about $1,200,000, raised by new taxes to $2,300,000. Since 
this proved insuflficient, parliament was called together. Amoug 
the speeches made after the king had asked for new grants, 



REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 433 

was that of the member for Oxford, who asked: "To what 
purpose is it to draw a silver stream out of the country into the 
royal cistern, if it shall daily run out thence by private cocks? 
. . . And for his part, he said, he would never give his con- 
sent to take money from a poor frieze jerkin to trap a courtier's 
horse withal. And therefore he wished that we might join in 
humble petition to his majesty that he would diminish hi's 
charge and live of his owu,^ without exacting of his poor 
subjects." 

The Commons being unwilling to proceed to grant any 
mone}' without knowing what the king would give in return, 
the king sent back word by the treasurer to parliament "that 
for his kingdom he was beholden to no elective power, neither 
did he depend on any popular applause. . . . But, withal, he 
did acknowledge that he had no power to make laws of himself, 
or to exact au}^ subsidies . . . without the consent of his three 
estates. ..." The king afterward promised not to use the 
money for the benefit of any private person, nor to impose any 
taxes but in parliament, where he will propose measures for 
debate. Discussion followed, ending in the presentation of the 
following " Remonstrance" : — 

" Most gracious sovereign ; whereas we your Majesty's hum- 
ble subjects . . . have received . . = a commandment of restraint 
from debating in Parliament your Majesty's power to impose 
[taxes] upon ^^our subjects . . . 3'et allowing us to examine the 
grievance of these impositions . . . we, your Majesty's loving 
subjects, . . . are bold to make this remonstrance. . . . 

"First, we hold it an ancient, general, and undoubted right 
of parliament to discuss all things properlv concerning the 
subjects. . . . 

" And therefore for that we cannot proceed further without 
concluding forever the right of the subject, which without due 
examination we cannot do, we humbly desire 3^our Majesty that 
we be set at liberty to proceed in our debates ..." 

1 To "live of his own," that is, from the income of the royal estates 
and the customary feudal dues. 



434 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

This petition the king promised to grunt if the Commons 
would " not impugn his prerogative, woukl seek his content 
and satisfaction, and endeavor to unite and confirm his sub- 
jects' hearts unto him." 

The House then entered into debate concerning Papists, the 
taxes, and the king's support. In the debate concerning the 
latter, it was argued that " this matter of support was a thing 
strange, and never heard of in Parliament but once " ; since no 
agreement could be reached concerning it, the king waived the 
matter, if only present aid might be given. 

n. The Civil Wars of England, (From Hobbes' " Levia- ■ 
than," or an " Epitome of the Civil Wars of England," 
written in the form of a dialogue.) 

'•''A. In the year 1640, the government of England was i, 
monarchical ; and the King that reigned, Charles, the first of \\ 
that name, held the sovereignty by right of a descent con- -! 
tinned above six hundred years . . . ; a man that wanted no 
virtue, either of body or mind, nor endeavored anything more 
than to discharge his duty towards God, in the well-governing jl 
of his subjects. 

B. How could he then miscarry, having ... so manyu 
trained soldiers? ... 

A. If those soldiers had been, as they and all other subjects i 
ought to have been, at his Majesty's command, the peace and 
happiness of the three kingdoms had continued. . . . But the 
people were corrupted generally, and disobedient persons 
esteemed the best patriots. 

B. But sure there were men enough, besides those that 
were ill-affected, to have made an army. . . . 

A. Truly, I think, if the King had had money, he might 
have had soldiers enough in England. . . . But the King's 
treasury was very low, and his enemies, that pretended the. 
people's ease from taxes, . . . had the command of the 
purses. . . . 

B. But how came the people to be so corrupted ? . . . 



KEFORMATION AND KENAISSAXCE EKA. 436 

A. Their seducers were of divers sorts. One sort were 
ministers ; ministers, as they ctdled tliemselves, of Christ, . . . 
pretending to have a right from God to govern eNery one his 
parish, and their assembl}- the whole nation. Secondly, there 
were a very great number . . . which . . . did still retain a belie t' 
that they ought to be governed ])y the Tope ... in the right of 
Christ. . . . And these were known by the name of Papists ; 
as the ministers . . . were commonly called Presbyterians. 
Thndh^, there were not a few who . . . declared themselves for 
a liberty in religion. . . . Some of them, because they would 
have all congregations free and independent, . . . were called 
Independents [Congregationalists] . . . besides divers other 
sects. . . . And these were the enemies which rose against his 
^Majesty from the private interpretation of the Scripture, ex- 
posed to every man's scanning ni his mother tongue. Fourthly, 
there were an exceeding great number of men of the better 
sort, that had been so educated, as that in their youth having 
read the books written by famous men of the ancient Greek 
and Roman commonwealths ... in which books the popular 
government was extolled by that glorious name of liberty, and 
monarchy disgraced by the name of tyrann}^ ; the}' became 
thereby in love with their forms of government. And out of 
these men were chosen the greatest part of the House of Com- 
mons- . . . Lastly, the people in general were so ignorant of 
their duty as that not one perhaps of ten thousand knew what 
right any man had to command him, or what necessity theie 
was of King or Commonwealth for which he was to part with 
his money against his will ; but thought . . . that it could not 
be taken from him upon any pretence of common safety without 
his own consent. ..." 

" For after the Bible was translated into English, every 
man, nay, every boy and wench that could read English, 
thought they spoke with God Almighty, and understood what 
he said. . . . The reverence and obedience due to the Reformed 
Church . . . was cast off, and every man became a judge of 
religion and an interpreter of the Scriptures to himself. . . . 



436 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

" There is no nation in the world whose religion is not estab- 
lished and receives not its authorit}^ from the laws of that 
nation. . . . Because men can never by their own wisdom 
come to the knowledge of what God hath spoken and com- 
manded to be observed, . . . they are to acquiesce in some 
human authority or other. ..." 

0. The Scots' Solemn League and Covenant^ 1643. (Han- 

sard's Parliamentary Debates.) 
"We noblemen, barons, knights, gentlemen, citizens, bur- 
gesses, ministers of the gospel and commons of all sorts, . . . 
have now at last . . . resolved and determined to enter into a 
mutual and solemn League and Covenant ; wherein we all . . . 
with our hands lifted up to the most high God, do swear, ■ — 

1. That we shall sincerely, really and constantly, through the 
grace of God, endeavour, in our several places and callings, 
the preservation of the reformed religion of the church of 
Scotland, . . . and we shall endeavour to bring the churches of 
God, in the three kingdoms, to the nearest . . . uniformity in 
religion, confession of faith, . . . church government, directory 
for worship and catechizing; that we . . . may, as brethren, 
live in faith and love, and the Lord may delight to dwell in the 
midst of us. 2. That we shall in like manner, without respect 
of persons, endeavour the extirpation of popery, prelacy (that 
is, church government by archbishops, bishops . . .), supersti- 
tion, heresy, schism, profaneuess, and whatsoever shall be 
found contrary to sound doctrine • . . ; that the Lord may be 
one and his name one in the three kingdoms. 3. We sliall, 
with the same sincerity, reality, and constancy, in our several 
vocations, endeavour ... to preserve the rights and privileges 
of the parliaments and the liberties of the kingdoms ; and to 
preserve and defend the king's . . . person and authority, in 
the preservation and defence of the true religion and liberties 
of the kingdoms. ... G. We shall also ... in this common 
cause of religion, liberty and peace of the kingdoms, assist and 
defend all those that enter into this League and Covenant, in 



REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 487 

the maintRining and pursuing thereof ; and shall not suffer our- 
selves ... to make defection to the contrary part, or to give 
ourselves to a detestable . . . neutrality in this cause which so 
much concerneth the glor}' of God. . . . And this Covenant 
we make in the presence of Almighty God, the Searcher of all 
hearts, with a true intention to perform the same, as we sliall 
answer at that great day when the secrets of all hearts shall be 
disclosed. ..." 



[). The King's Power. (From Cowell's "Interpreter," a law 
dictionary of the time of James I.) 

"The King is above the law by his absolute power. . . For 
otherwise were he subject after a sort, and subordinaire, which 
may not bee thought without breach of duty and loyaltie. . . . 
And though at his coronation he take an oath not to alter 
the lawes of the land ; yet this oath notwithstanding, hee 
ma}' alter or suspend au}^ particular lawe that seemeth hurt- 
full to the publike estate. . . . Thus much in short, because 
I have heard some to be of opinion that the lawes be above the 
King. . . . But I hold . . . that the King of England is an 
absolute King." 

STUDY ON 3, h-p. 

What two motives for the sending out of the Armada? What did 
the English and the Dutch regard as their strongest defence against 
this fleet? What historical influence is incidentally seen to be felt in 
England? What feeling displayed in / and y? What causes for that 
feeling are indicated in each of these extracts? What wrong or 
oppression is shown by hotU h and gf What class is wronged by the 
"inclosures" and how? How does this wrong become an injury to 
the State? "What injury arises from the massing of pasture and sheep 
in the hands of the few? Who are injured? What does the letter of 
Elizabeth illustrate ? 

What injustice to the State is seen in the expenses of James I.? 
How is this illustrated in tlie member for Oxford's speech? What 
does the " Remonstrance " and the accompanying discussion show to 



438 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

be the point at issue between the king and parliament? Why does 
the matter of the king's support seem strange to parliament? What 
difference between the feudal and modern theory of a king's 
support ? 

Describe the causes of the civil wars in England from a Royalist's 
point of view. From a Covenanter's. What objection to the general 
reading of the Scriptures is urged by llobbes ? What justification 
for the union of Church and State ? What intolerance do you discover 
in the " Solemn League and Covenant " ? What different view of the 
king's power taken by Cowell and the Covenant? 



E. MODEEN EUEOPE, 1648-1880. 

Periods of History. 

I. The "Old Regime,"! 1648-1789. Peace of Westphalia to the 
French Revolution. 

Ao. In Europe in general 
kh. In France. 
IT. French Revolution and wars of Napoleon, 1789-1815. 
III. Nineteenth Century, 1815-1880. 

I. TFIE "OLD REGIME." 

"Infinite Providence, thou wilt make the clay dawn. — 

" But still struggles the twelfth hour of the night ; nocturnal birds of 

prey shoot through the darkness ; spectres rattle ; the dead play their 

antics; the living dream." — Richtek. 

Aa. General Study on the ^' Old Regime"^ in Euro2)e, 
age of Letvis XIV,, Frederick, the Great, Anne and 
the Georges, Maria Theresa, Pete?' the Great. 

Chief original sources of its history : State documents, 
consisting of government records, of treaties, diplomatic 
correspondence, and laws ; contemporary letters and jour- 
nals (notably of St. Simon and Pe})ys) ; pamphlets 
and newspapers ; contemporary art and literature ; the 



1 This general phrase can hardly be applied to England after 1688. 



MODERN EUROPE. 439 

"Annual Register," publislied yearly since 1758, and con- 
taining a record of the events and a retrospect of the 
literature, science, and art of each year. 

Chief historians: Same as for i>; also Sclilosser's His- 
tory of the Eighteenth Century, and Lecky's History of 
Rationalism in Europe, and his History of England. 

1. Chronological Suntfnary of Leading Events, 

a. International. 

Continued war between France and Spain over i — 
l)oundaries. This war ends by the Peace of the to 
Fyvenees^ Avhich gives France new territory to- ' ^^^^' 



w^ard Spain and the Spanish Netherlands ; at the same 
time a marriage is arranged between Lewis XIV. and a 
Spanish princess, the former giving a solemn promise to 
claim no rights to Spanish lands by reason of this union, 
in consideration of a large sum of money to be paid by 
Spain. 

Naval Avar between England and Holland, caused by 
mutual irritation over colonial and commercial relations, 
and finally precipitated hj the passage of the " Navigation 
Act " by the English parliament. By this act no goods 
are to be brought from Asia, Africa, or America into Eng- 
land save in English ships. The war ends by a treaty in 
Avhich the Dutch agree to salute the English Hag when 
they meet it on the higli seas, and to repair injuries done 
to English commerce in the East Indies and elsewhere. — 
Commercial treaties advantageous to England, made be- 
tween her and Denmark, Portugal, and Sweden ; Portugal 
grants the English the exclusive right of commerce with 
herself and her colonies. — One English fleet dispatched 
by the government (Cromwell's) seizes Jamaica from 
Spain, while another is sent out to annoy the Spanish 
galleons. War with Spain, in which the English join 



440 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

forces with the French, and which is ended by the Peace 
of the Pyrenees. 

War of Sweden against Poland, because the king of 
the latter country claims a right to the Swedish crown ; 
Russia, Denmark, Germany, and the elector of Branden- 
burg join Poland. The war ends with the Peace of Oliva 
and two other treaties, by which it is agreed that the 
Polish king shall renounce all claims to the Swedish 
throne, and acknowledge Brandenburg as the independent 
ruler of Prussia, while Denmark gives up all claims to 
possessions in tlie Scandinavian peninsula. 

On pretexts arising from his Spanish marriage, 
Lewis XIV. invades and conquers parts of the 
Spanish Netherlands and of the Spanish county 



1660 

TO 
1700. 



of Burgundy (^Franche-Comte^. England, Holland, and 
Sweden form a Triple Alliance against him, and he signs a 
temporar}^ peace. He then buys off the king of England 
(Charles II.) from this alliance by promising an annual 
payment of $1,000,000 in return for English aid in his 
wars with Spain and Holland; he also buys the aid of 
Cologne and Miinster, and concludes a private treaty with 
Sweden. Thus prepared, he attacks Holland; the latter 
is aided by the elector of Brandenburg, the emperor, and 
Spain. This war ends with the Peace of Nimivegen^ by 
which Holland promises neutrality, Brandenburg gains 
confirmation of possession of lands near the Rhine, Lewis 
XIV. gains Franche-Comt^ and important parts of the 
Spanish Netherlands (1678-1679). Lewis establishes 
" Chambers of Reunion," or special French courts, to 
decide just what towns and cities belong to him according 
to treaty ; whatever is adjudged his, he occupies with his 
troops, and thus gradually wins the larger part of Elsass 
(Alsace) ; he treacherously seizes Strasburg, invades the 
remainder of the Spanish Netherlands, occupies Lorraine. 



MODERN EUROPE 441 

The emperor protests, and makes a truce with Lewis, by 
which, hoAvever, the latter retains his "Reunions" and 
Strasburg as welL 

While France thus crowds back the boundaries of the 
Empire from the west, the Turks attack her on the Hun- 
garian side, take Belgrade, and besiege Vienna itself 
(1683), whence they are turned back by Sobieski, king of 
Poland, and Charles, duke of Lorraine ; they are driven 
further and further southward, and the crown of Hungary 
becomes hereditary in the House of Austria. 

Charles IT. of England, desirous of gaining supplies 
from parliament, and supported by the English merchants, 
who are jealous of the Dutch commercial power, sends 
out a fleet to attack and annoy the Dutch colonial pos- 
sessions ; New Amsterdam is seized by the English and 
named New York ; new war with Holland follows, ended 
by the Treaty of Breda, which confirms New York to Eng- 
land and Surinam to Holland. 

Lewis XIV. claims new lands toward the Rhine (^Pa- 
latinate) on the pretext of inheritance, and at once begins 
to occupy and devastate them by force of arms. The 
emperor, the kings of Sweden and Spain, several German 
princes, England and Holland, form the " Grand Alliance " 
against him ; war is waged in Europe and the European 
colonies, ending by the Peace of Byswick^ which leaves 
things much as before ; Lewis is compelled to make some 
restorations to Spain and a few to the emperor, but is 
allowed to keep Elsass and Strasburg. 

War of the Spanish Succession. — The king of 
Spain, having willed his dominions to the grand- 
son of Lewis XIV., who accepts the crown in his 



1700 

TO 

1714. 



behalf, the second Grand Alliance is formed by England, 
Holland, and the emperor, with the avowed objects of 
conquering the Spanish Netherlands as a protection for 



442 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Holland, of conquering Italy away from Spain, of hinder- 
ing France from gaining tlie Spanish Indies, and of gain- 
ing favorable commercial terms for England and Holland 
in the Spanish trade ; above all, the union of France and 
Spain under the same crown is to be prevented. The 
Alliance declares war against Lewis, and prosecutes it in 
Italy, along the Rhine and the Danube, in Spain and the 
Spanish possessions ; its most distinguished generals are, 
for the imperial forces, Prince Eugene, a noble Savoyard, 
and for the British, Marlborough. The war is closed in 
1713 and 1714 by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt. 
These treaties provide as follows : That France shall aban- 
don the claims of the Stuarts to the English throne, cede 
to Great Britain Acadia (IN ova Scotia), Hudson's Bay, and 
Newfoundland, and make such arrangements for the suc- 
cession in France as shall prevent any possible union of 
French and Spanish crowns ; that the elector of Branden- 
burg shall be recognized by the title of King of Pi^ussia^ 
and that France shall cede to him certain territories in 
the Spanish Netherlands, on condition of the Catholic 
religion being still upheld ; that the duke of Savoy shall 
gain new Italian territories and become the king of Sicily ; ^ 
that France shall surrender all those parts of the Spanish 
Netherlands still held by her, and not otherwise disposed 
of, to Austria ; that Spain shall give Minorca and Gibraltar 
to England, on condition of neither Jews nor Moors being 
allowed therein ; that the trade in African slaves shall be 
given to an English company for thirty years ; that all 
places on the right bank of the Rhine shall belong to the 
empire; that the archduke of Austria (emperor) shall 
retain all the parts of Italy which he occupies, namely, 
Sardinia, the duchy of Milan, and the kingdom of Naples. 

1 In 1720 Sicily was exchanged for Sardinia; thus the duke of Savoy 
became tlie king of Sardinia. 



MODERN EUKOPE. 443 

At the same time commercial treaties are concluded be- 
tween France and Great Britain, and between France and 
Holland. 

Meanwhile war between Russia, Poland, Denmark, and 
Sweden, each country desirous of gaining firmer foothold 
on the Baltic lands with their important harbors. The 
war ends with treaties (1719-1721) Avhich give Russia the 
Baltic lands about St. Petersburg, and give the king of 
Prussia, who had entered the war as a " free lance," added 
territories in Northern Germany. 

Prince Eugene fights against the Turk in Hun- 
gary, and Belgrade is won again for the emperor. 
— Spain, dissatisfied with the Peace of Utrecht, 



1714 

TO 

1T40. 



conquers Sardinia wholly and Sicily partially, whereupon 
England, France, Holland, and the emperor form the 
Quadruple Alliance against her, force her to retreat, and 
renounce Sicily and Sardinia forever ; the emperor and 
the duke of Savoy exchange the two islands, and thus 
the two Sicilies are again united, and the duke of Savoy 
becomes the king of Sardinia (1720). — War of the Polish 
S>(cces8io7i, caused by a quarrel over the election to the 
Polish throne ; the emperor and Russia support one can- 
didate, the kings of France, Sardinia, and Spain the other; 
war ending in a treaty by which Sardinia gains a part of 
the Milanese lands, Spain gains the two Sicilies for a 
younger branch of its ruling house (Bourbon), Lorraine 
is to pass to France, and its duke, son-in-law of the em- 
peror (archduke of Austria), is granted the rule over 
Tuscany. — The Turks once more win Belgrade. 
Wars of FiiEDERiCK the Great. — The two 
first of these wars are parts of the general 
European war of the " Austrian Succession." 



1714 

TO 
1763. 



This succession, in 1740, falls to Maria Theresa, daughter 
of the preceding emperor, who had made her his heir by 



444 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the " Pragmatic Sanction " ; since many of the princes of 
Europe entirely disapprove of this disposal of the Austrian 
inheritance, several of them combine to dispute it in behalf 
of rival claims, and the Wa?- of the Austrian Succession is 
opened by the king of Spain and some of the German 
princes, first among them being Frederick the Greats king 
of Prussia. On the grounds of some half-forgotten and 
remote claims of inheritance, this king claims and seizes by 
force of arms the duchy of Silesia. In return for it, he 
promises Maria Theresa his alliance in war, his vote among 
the electors for her husband as emperor, and $2,000,000. 
Maria Theresa rejects the bargain , the war now opens be- 
tween Prussia, allied with France, Spain, Bavaria, Sardinia, 
and Saxony on the one side, and Austria, supported by 
Great Britain and Holland, on the other ; it closes (1748) by 
the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which confirms the " Prag- 
matic Sanction," but gives Silesia to Frederick. 

The "Seven Years' War" is the third of these wars 
of Frederick. Austria, dissatisfied with the loss of Sile- 
sia, forms secret alliances and plans against Frederick. 
The latter, knowing these schemes, suddenly invades 
Saxony, seizes Dresden, and precipitates war. Russia, 
Saxony, Sweden, and France fight with Austria against 
Frederick, who is supported by England and later by Peter 
the Third, who brings Russia to his aid on account of his 
personal admiration of the Prussian king. The war ends 
by a treaty which confirms Silesia to Frederick, while the 
latter promises to give his vote for emperor to Maria 
Theresa's son. 

Both of these wars are waged, on the part of England 
and France, in their colonial possessions as well as in 
Europe, causing, among other conflicts, the so-called 
" King George's War " and " The Old French and Indian 
War." These colonial wars end in the Peace of Paris, by 



1763 

TO 
1789. 



MODERN EUROPE. 445 

which France cedes to Eiighind Nova Scotia and Canada, 
while a line drawn from the source to the mouth of the 
Mississippi is to make the boundary between British and 
French possessions on this continent; she also grants 
certain lands in Africa, in the West and East Indies, and 
promises to keep no troops in Bengal. Great Britain re- 
stores certain West Indian territory to France ; Spain 
gives England Florida and other Spanish colonies east 
of the Mississippi, the right of the Newfoundland fish- 
eries, and the privilege of -cutting logwood in the bay 
of Honduras. France agrees to give Spain Louisiana, 
including New Orleans. 

Wars of Catherine the Second of Russia; the 
formatio7i of the United States. Catherine the 
Second of Russia and Frederick tlie Great of 
Prussia interfere in Polish affairs, dictating in regard to 
the internal government of the country ; the Poles revolt, 
and war ensues in which Russia decidedly gains the 
upper-hand. Prussia and Austria, fearing the advance 
of Russian power through Poland, make an agreement 
to divide Poland between themselves and Catherine. This 
agreement, carried out by force of arms, is known as the 
First Partition of Poland (1772). — War of Russia and 
Turkey, ending in the advance of Russia into the Crimea, 
and in general towards the Black Sea, in her assuming 
the position of protector of certain Christian peoples 
under Turkish rule, and in her obtaining free commercial 
navigation in Turkish waters. — A plan of armed neu- 
trality at sea during time of war proposed by Russia 
(1780), and soon supported by other powers of Europe ; 
this plan demands the unmolested passage of neutral 
ships, and declares that blockades must be enforced by 
armed ships in order to be recognized. 

Revolt of American -colonies against England, followed 



446 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. 

1)Y the " War of Independence," in which they are joined 
by France, Spain, and Holland ; the war ends in treaties 
signed at Paris and Versailles, which recognize the United 
States of America as an independent power ; which give 
them the right to the Newfoundland fisheries; and which 
leave the navigation of the Mississippi open both to the 
United States and Great Britain. 

STUDY ON I a. 

Of what nature are these international relations ? What three groups 
of countries do you distinguish in these relations? AVhat historical 
and what geographical reasons can you give for these groups? What, 
in general, are the objects and causes of the wars of this period? 
Compare these objects and causes with those of the wars from 1492 
to 1G48. In whose interests are these wars waged? WIjo suffer from 
them? How do they suffer? In whose hands is the disposal of Euro- -j 
pean territory? What relation between the feudal organization and 
the object of a war like that of the Austrian or Spanish succession ? 'i 
What part of the feudal organization has overshadowed all the others? 
Prove it. In what countries? In private life how would you charac- 
terize the actions of men like Lewis XIV. (the Great), Charles II. of \ 
England, and Frederick II. of Prussia (the Great) ? What similarity in 
the royal titles of the kings of Prussia, Hungary, and Sardinia? What 
country is evidently the strongest in Europe in the war of the Spanish \ 
succession? Prove it. Why should so many princes have combined | 
against Maria Theresa ? What country grows most rapidly in Euro- ^ 
pean power during the period? Prove it. What country is the 
weakest in Europe during the whole period ? Prove it. What I 
country greatly decreases in power during this time? Prove it. 
What is your judgment of the strength of the empire? W^hat is the 
first great commercial and naval power of Europe in this age? Theij 
second? Sustain your judgment by facts. What relation betweeni 
the geographical situation of Brandenburg, Savoy, and Austria, and { 
their importance in European wars? AVhat is the importance of 
Gibraltar to England? During this age this phrase arose: "The 
Balance of Power"; explain it in such a connection as this: To pre- 
serve the balance of power, the kings of Europe formed alliances 
acainst Lewis XIV. 



MODERN EUROPE. 447 



b. Internal Affairs of England, 

The Commonwealth, or the English Repuhlic. 
The title and office of king and of the House of 
Lords is abolished by the army under the lead of 



1649 

TO 

1653. 



Cromwell ; the '' Rump Parliament," consisting of about 
fifty independents and commoners thoroughly in sympa- 
thy with and supported by Cromwell and his " Iron-sides," 
governs England. Scotland proclaims Charles II. king 
on his subscribing to their covenant, and Ireland rises in 
his favor. Cromwell defeats the Scotch at Worcester, 
suppresses the Irish demonstration, and Charles escapes 
disguised to France. 

Growing difficulties between the army and the parlia- 
ment; Cromwell at last forcibly turns out the "Rump," 
and a new parliament (" Barehones' ") is chosen, as thor- 
oughly as possible in sympathy with his own ideas ; 
after a little they resign their power to Cromwell, who is 
named " Lord Protector " of England. 

The Protectorate. — Cromwell, Lord Pro- 
tector of the Commonwealth of England, Scot- 
land, and Ireland, rules according to " the 



1653 

TO 

1660. 



instrument of government," a written constitution defin- 
ing the powers, rights, relations, and duties of the various 
ruling powers of England. By this instrument parlia- 
ments are to be triennial, are to have sole power of granting 
supplies and levying taxes ; a standing army is to be sup- 
ported, and the Lord Protector is to be the chief executor 
of the state. 

England is now divided into military districts, each 
under a major-general, whose troops are supported by tax- 
ing royalist estates. Episcopal clergymen are , forbidden 
to preach, and priests are banished; all publications are 
examined by the government, and only those it approves 
are allowed to circulate. 



448 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

On the death of Oliver Cromwell (1658), his son Rich- 
ard is proclaimed Lord Protector in his stead. The arniy 
and parliament quarrel ; Richard, helpless to reconcile 
them, resigns, and the English portion of the army expels 
the parliament (re-assembled "Rump"); divisions arise 
in the army, and Monk, the general of the Scottish troops, 
marches on London and proclaims a " Free Parliament." 
By this " Free Parliament," or convention, Charles II. is 
proclaimed the king of England, on the conditions which 
he himself offers, — a general amnesty to his enemies, and 
toleration of all religious opinions not hurtful to the state 
(^Declaration of Breda'). 

The Restoration. — Charles abolishes all the 
old feudal dues, in consideration of a yearly in- 
come of $6,000,000, and disbands the army. Par- 



1660 

TO 
1688. 



liament, under the lead of Clarendon, repeals the measures 
of the preceding twenty-eight years ; orders the " Solemn 
League and Covenant " to be burned, and passes the Cor- 
poration Act, by which all magistrates must commune 
with the Church of England, abjure the covenant, and 
take an oath declaring it illegal to bear arms against the 
king. Continual efforts on the part of the king and his 
ministers to procure measures from parliament that will 
favor Catholics, and increase the forces at the disposal of 
the king ; continued efforts on the part of the parliament 
and the nation to keep non-conformists and Catholics out 
of office, and to see that the taxes and the troops raised 
by the nation be used for national purposes. These efforts 
end, (a), in the passing of the Test Act, which requires all 
government officers to commune with the Church of Eng- 
land, and to declare against transubstantiation ; this aci 
calls forth a strong and definite party of Dissenters ; (5^ 
in the formation of a small standing army under the king's 
command, to be used in the foreign wars of the period; 



i 






MODERN EUROPE. 449 

(6'), in a 2:)0werful agitation against Roman Catholics, cul- 
minating in an unsuccessful movement to exclude the 
king's Catholic brotlier James from the English throne. 
The troubles threatened by these conflicting efforts on 
the part of the king and parliament are averted, (a), by 
changes of ministers, (^), by compromises, made mostly 
by the king, (c), by pensions to Charles from Lewis XIV. 
of France. That is, during this reign the great measures 
of state are mostly planned and urged by a small group 
of the king's advisers or friends, Avho form a sort of min- 
istry, but whom the king changes when they too greatly 
displease either himself or parliament ; now, too, the king 
adopts a regular j)olicy of compromise, thus often obtain- 
ing his own w^ay while warding off the civil conflict of the 
preceding reign. When, however, parliament pushes him 
too hard, Charles has recourse either to some pretext 
for foreign war, which forces parliament to grant supplies 
and troops, or else obtains a pension from Lewis, which 
enables him to live and reign without calling on parlia- 
ment. Although no serious break occurs between the 
nation and the king, great discontent is caused by the 
leaning of the court toward Catholicism, by the shifting 
policy of Charles, and by his secret and disgraceful de- 
ipendence on the French king. 

J In 1685 James II., his brother, accedes. He allows Ro- 
|man Catholic worship, favors Papists, brings them into 
: office, and forbids Protestant clergymen to jDreach doctri- 
nal sermons; he forms a camp of 13,000 men near London, 
declares liberty of conscience throughout the realm, and 
orders this declaration to be read in all the churches; 
seven prominent bishops petition him not to insist upon 
this reading ; the king commits them to the tower, and 
brings them to judgment; they are, however, acquitted, 
and on the day of their acquittal an invitation, signed by 



450 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

noble and leading Englishmen, is sent to William of 
Orange, husband of Mary, daughter of James II., to "save 
England from a Catholic tyranny." William comes at 
once to England, James II. flees to France, parliament 
offers the crown to William and Mary jointly (1689), 
on condition of their agreeing that law shall neither 
be imposed nor suspended, nor moneys levied without 
the consent of parliament ; that it shall be lawful to 
petition the sovereign ; that no standing army shall be 
maintained without the consent of parliament ; that elec- 
tion for parliament and debates within it shall be free, 
and that parliaments shall be frequently held {Beelara-^ 
tion of Rights). 

William and Mary accept, and the so-called "Revolu- 
tion of 1688" is accomplished. The government moves 
on in accordance with the Declaration of Rights, which!' 
becomes a settled part of the constitution ; from this time 
on, moreover, the Commons assume as their right the 
practices which had grown up under Charles II. of giving; 
the king a fixed income ; of demanding from the king 
and his ministers estimates and accounts of supplies de- 
manded, and of voting definite sums for definite purposes 
An act of toleration is passed, freeing dissenters from 
punishment for not attending the services of the Estab 
lished Church, and the censorship of the press is abolished 
Lingering dissatisfaction and revolt in Scotland and Ire 
land suppressed. 

During this reign the Ministry^ led by some chief, oi 
Prime Minister^ becomes a recognized and constitutionai|| 
part of the government, and the ministers are held re| 
sponsible for the measures of the monarch. 

Anne., second daughter of James II., queen 
In 1707 England and Scotland are united by the 
name of Great Britain, under one monarch anc 



1703 

TO 

1714. 



MODERN EUROPE, 451 

one parliament. During this reign the custom is estab- 
lished that tlie ministry shall belong to the party which 
has the majority in the House of Connnons, Pay-ties 
(Whig and Tory) become a strongly marked feature of 
English politics. 

House of Hanover or Brunstvick ; William and 
the first three Georges. Chief interests of Great 
Britain, foreign and colonial. See a. 



1714 

TO 
1789. 



STUDY ON 6. 

What is the real nature of the government named the Common- 
wealth? The Protectorate? What resemblance between Crom- 
well and the kings of the " Old Regime " ? What difference ? What 
two important changes in the relation to the king and the state are 
made at the time of the Restoration ? 'What do the acts of the first 
freely elected parliament of the Restoration indicate in regard to the 
religious attitude of the majority of English people ? How will you 
describe their nature ? After the Restoration, what or who holds the 
strongest political power in England? Prove it. What are the two 
points of James' offence against England? In what ways is the 
acceptance of the " Declaration of Rights " a revolution ? In whose 
hands does it place the chief political power of England? What 
power has the House of Commons to force the government to jdeld to 
its wishes? Illustrate. What new organ becomes a part of the 
British government ? Whom does this organ represent ? What new 
organization among the people is called forth by this organ ? When 
does the government of England cease to be properly classed as a 
feudal government? What remains of its old feudal organization? 

2. Famous Wo7^ks, Foundations ^ Enterprises, Inven- 
tions , Investigations f and Discoveries of the Period, 

a. Publications of the Press. 

In England, the most important books of the last half 
of the seventeenth centnry are Milton's " Paradise Lost," 
a poem based on the story of the temptation and fall of 
Adam; Bnnyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," an allegory 



452 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

describing the progress of the human soul from sin to full 
salvation and a heavenly home; Butler's "Hudibras," a 
poem satirizing the English Puritans ; Hobbes' " Levia- 
than " (see p. 434) ; Newton's "Principia," enunciating the 
principle of gravitation and the system of the physical 
universe ; this work is made known to France by Vol- 
taire ; the poems of Dryden, the most famous of wdiich 
satirize contemporary events and persons in political life; 
Locke's " Essay on the Human Understanding," written 
to show that human sensation and experience are the only 
sure bases of human knowledge, and happiness the final 
aim of conduct, a work popularized in France by Voltaire; 
a mass of ephemeral pamphlets, written on the various 
political and religious questions which are agitating Eng- 
hind. 

The notable works of the eighteenth century are : Adam 
Smith's "Wealth of Nations," a book setting forth the 
natural laws of trade, especially that of " Supply and 
Demand," and considered to have founded the science of 
" Political Economy " or the study of these laws, at least 
among English speaking nations ; Gibbon's " Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire," a history of Rome founded 
on the study of original and contemporary authorities; 
Hume's " History of England." 

A mass of controversial books and pamphlets, on the one 
side attacking, on the other defending, the established 
dogmas of the Christian church. On both sides the argu- 
ments are drawn from the observed facts of nature, from 
history, and from the conclusions of the human reason. 
Of the opponents of Christianity Hume and Gibbon are 
the most famous, while Butler's "Analogy" and Bishop 
Berkeley's writings are perhaps its strongest defences. 

Pope's "Essay on Man," a didactic poem, dealing with 
the powers, relations, and aims of human existence; Swift's 



MODERN EUROPE. 45S 

'^ Gulliver's Travels," an imaginary journey, satirizing exist- 
ing social and political institutions and customs; Addison's 
"Spectator," and other periodical papers designed for 
popular reading and discussing questions of mental and 
moral philosophy, of society, and politics; Johnson's 
" Rasselas " or tlie " Hapj^y Valley," a romance showing 
that every condition of life has its miseries, which should 
he met by a spirit of philosophic or religious content. 

The novels of Richardson, De Foe, Goldsmith, Smollett, 
and Fielding, conveying moral teaching through stories 
whose characters and situations are drawn from the study 
of contemporary life, often from that of the middle classes. — 
The parliamentary speeches of the elder and younger Pitt, 
of Burke and Fox, on the political issues of the day. 

The philosophic and legal writings of Jeremy Bentham, 
who maintained that the fundamental aim of society, law, 
and government should be " the greatest happiness to the 
greatest number," and that utility should be the prime 
consideration of all actions and institutions. His writings 
were very famous on the continent, especially in France. 

Johnson's Dictionary and Chamber's Cyclopedia, the 
first important publications of this sort in the English lan- 
guage ; before the close of the century, the first edition of 
the Cyclopedia Britannica appeared. 

In France, from 1648 to 1700, the most famous writings 
are the tragedies of Racine and Corneille, written on clas- 
sical themes and models, and the comedies of Moliere, 
satirizing affectation in contemporary literary, social, and 
religious life; — the mathematical discoveries and specula- 
tions of Pascal, who was also noted as a religious writer. 

The famous French books of the eighteenth century 
are the "Social Contract" and the "Emile" of Rousseau, 
the former a powerful, bitter, and po])ular criticism on 
existing governments and societies ; the latter a work on 



454 STUDIES IN GENERzVL HISTORY. 

education, proposing the study of physical nature as the 
basis of all culture, a theory of education largely borrowed 
from Locke; — the essays, letters, and historical works of 
Voltaire, containing the keenest and most effective satirical 
attacks upon the contemporary state, church, and society; 
— Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws," a book in which he 
discussed the philosophy of states, the benefits, the dan- 
gers, and evils of various forms of government, the relations 
of liberty and taxation ; throughout this work, the British 
constitution is regarded as the best existing form ; — the 
philosophical writings of the sensationalists, who followed 
Locke's philosophy to the extreme, in maintaining that 
sensation is the basis of morals as well as of knowledge; — 
the "Natural History" of Buffon, containing a brilliant and 
accurate description of a large portion of the animal king- 
dom, together with philosophical theories of their relations 
to each other and their environment; — the "Cyclopedia," 
a work perhaps suggested by that of Chambers, edited 
and written by the best contemporary authors; it paid 
especial attention to all subjects connected with natural 
science; — the first standard French dictionary also ap- 
peared in this century. 

In Germany, the most famous publications of the seven- 
teenth century were the philosophic works of the Dutch- 
man, Spinoza, who sought to discover by reason the nature 
of God and the universe, and their relations to the human 
mind, and who claimed that his conclusions were in accord- 
ance with the teachings of Christianity. 

In the eighteenth century appeared the works of Leib- 
nitz, dealing with problems of mental philosophy, mathe- 
matics, and optics ; in philosophy, he contested the 
conclusions of the French sensationalists ; — the most fa- 
mous philosophic work of the age, Kant's "Critique of 
Pure Reason," in which he examined the origin, extent, 



MODERN EUROPE. 455 

and limits of liiiman reason, and argued for the existence of 
(rod and the absolute obligations of inorality ; — (Toetlie's 
''Faust," a drama end)odying the temptations, fall, and 
restoration of a human soul ; the dramas of Goethe and 
Schiller, dealing largely with historical epochs and charac- 
ters, studied from historical sources, and from observation of 
actual life ; — a mass of lyric poetry ; — Lessing's " Nathan 
the Wise," a dramatic poem in which a Jew, a Christian, 
and a Mohammedan discuss religious tolerance and uni- 
versal morality, reaching conclusions favorable to both. 

The famous publications of other countries during this 
period were, in Italy, the writings of Vico, who was the 
first to found any philosophy of history, and who main- 
tained the existence of Providence in the greater affairs of 
men ; the dramas of Alfieri, who founded Italian tragedy, 
using classical materials, but pure and noble Italian forms. — 
In America, the political speeches, pamphlets, and essays 
of Franklin, Washington, Jefferson, Adams ; the Declara- 
tion of Independence. — In Sweden, the botanical work of 
Linnaeus, who was the first systematically and thoroughly 
to classify the various genera of plants. 

h. Imjjorta^it Investigations, Studies, and Researches of 
the Period, 
Many experiments to separate matter into its original 
elements, resulting in Priestley's famous discovery of oxy- 
gen in the seventeenth century in England, followed by 
the discovery of many new elements, and the clear defini- 
tion of chemistry. — The observations and experiments of 
Huygens in Holland and of Newton in England on the 
nature of light and its action on various sorts of lenses ; 
the telescope is consequently greatly improved, and new 
laws of optics are discovered. — During the whole period 
luen are engaged in observing and experimenting and 



456 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

theorizing on the nature of light, heat, and electricity. 
(See also Newton, Linnseus, Buffon.) 

c. Material Improvements of Period. 

Lewis XIV. began to improve French roads during his 
reign, an improvement slowly extended to other European 
countries. — During his reign also (1667), Paris was weD 
and thoroughly lighted, and before the close of the period 
Vienna and London had followed this example. — The 
building of canals, especially in England. — The invention 
of the "spinning-jenny," by which the work of many hand- 
laborers could be done by one machine (developed by Har- 
greaves, Arkwright, Crompton, weavers) ; the invention 
of the Steam-Engine, by the Scotch working-engineer 
James Watt, and its application to manufactures and to 
mining ; — the discovery of how to smelt iron with coal 
instead of with wood. — Many small and progressive 
improvements in microscopes, telescopes, clocks, pumps, 
electrical conductors, and all sorts of scientific apparatus. 

d. Artistic Productions. 

The most famous are the musical compositions of Bach, 
Beethoven, and Mozart (German) ; — the landscape-paint- 
ings of Claude Lorraine (French) ; — the portrait-paintings 
of Gainsborough and Reynolds (English) ; — the carica- 
tures of Hogarth (English), satirizing contemporary life. 

e. Famous Fou7idations, Institutions^ and Movements. 
The foundation of European colonies in North America; 

the English and Dutch (in New York) established the 
thirteen colonies Avhich became the United States; — the 
French settled more thoroughly Canada and Nova Scotia 
and established scattered forts along the Great Lakes, the 
St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, and their tributaries. In 



MODERN EUROPE. 



457 



India, English and French established trading-posts, and 
the English established a system of government by which 
India was more or less ruled by English merchants in the 
interests of English enterprise. — The establishment of 
great business or trading co?'porations, such as the Bank 
of England and East India Company of London. — Tlic 
establishment of societies or academies of wealthy and 
learned men, for the advancement of science and learning. 





BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES. 



Of these the most famous was "The Royal Society" in 
England, whose " business was," says one of its early mem- 
bers, " to discourse and consider of j^hilosophical enquiries 
and such as related thereunto, as Physick, Anatomy, 
Geometry, Astronomy, Navigation . . . Chymicks, Mechan- 
icks, and Natural Experiments"; such academies were 
founded also in Germany, Russia, and France during the 
period under royal patronage. — The observatory •dt Green- 



458 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

wicli was established under Charles II., and that at Paris 
under Lewis XIV. — In the middle of the eighteenth 
century, the British Museum was founded to serve as a 
depository for collections to illustrate art, history, and 
science. — Under Charles II. the Chelsea hospital for dis- 
abled soldiers, and under William and Mary that at Green- 
wich for disabled sailors were established ; in Paris, Lewis 
XIV. built the "Hotel des Invalides" for old and sick 
soldiers. — This age saw the erection of many royal palaces 
and fine town and country houses for the nobility ; of the 
palaces, Versailles, built by Lewis XIV., has become the 
most famous. 

The latter part of the eighteenth century was marked, 
especially in England, by much agitation for the improve- 
ment of human conditions, especially among the silent 
and neglected classes. This agitation was carried on in 
behalf of the poor and sick, in behalf of the imprisoned 
and the enslaved, in behalf of the savages of America and 
the Hindoos of Asia; it resulted in the establishment of 
various hospitals and charities, in prison reform (John 
Howard), in the condemnation of British cruelty and 
oppression in India, and, under the lead of Wilberforce, 
in the abolition of negro slavery in the British colonies 
(early in following period). These movements were 
accompanied by a great religious revival among the lower 
classes (Wesleys), and by a reform within the English 
Church. 

STUDY ON 2. 

What relation between the literature and the events of the last half 
of the seventeenth century in England? Give five illustrations. 
What do you find common to the literature of France and England? 
AVhat subjects are of general interest throughout Europe? AVhat 
three subjects new to European tliought appear during this time ? 
What bases of truth are men seeking for? Illustrate. What rela,- 
tion between the literature and the life of this period, religious, social', 



J 



MODERN EUROPE. 459 

moral ? What new classes of literature appear ? What does each of 
these classes tell us of the taste, intelligence, or interest of the time? 
Of these classes, which has developed greatly in our own day ? In 
which country is the literature most revolutionary ? What relation 
between English and French thought? What is the general attitude 
of the publications of the period toward toleration? Freedom? 
Morality ? 

]\Iake a list of the new arts, sciences, industries, or activities shown 
by h, c, d, and e. AVhich of these has further developed in our own 
century? What relation between the material and intellectual -prog- 
ress of the period and the kings ? 

I. A&. Speckd Study of tlie ^^ Old Regime^' in France, 
Age of Lewis XIV., Lewis XV, , and Lewis XVI, 
{Eighteenth Century), 

Chief contemporary sources of its history : The '' Ca- 
hiers " of the departments of France, called in by the 
States-General of 1789, and containing memoranda of griev- 
ances, and official statements of conditions; private letters 
and diaries ; the travels of Arthur Young, an Englishman 
who made careful observations in France on the eve of 
the Revolution ; the works of Voltaire, Kousseau, and 
other writers of the time. 

Chief historians of period : De Tocqueville, 1 aine, 
Stephens. 



460 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



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462 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

2. Extracts and Facts Illustrative of Organization, 

Six ministers divide the kingdom geographically be- 
tween them ; thus the minister of war has charge of all 
the affairs of Dauphiny and some other territor}^ ; the 
minister of foreign affairs regulates pensions and all the 
affairs of Normandy and a few other provinces. Some of 
these provinces largely manage their own affairs ; others, 
the king rules absolutely ; in some, one per cent of taxes is 
assessed, in others, a large per cent ; in taking goods from 
one province to another, duties are always exacted at the 
frontier, but the amount levied varies with every boun- 
dary. If a village church needs repairing, if the road is 
bad, if a parish-meeting is to be called, if the "falling 
gables of the parsonage even of a village most remote 
from Paris" are to be rebuilt, the king's officer attends to 
it. If the king wants to make a new road or a new palace, 
he seizes the land and tears down the houses of those who 
live on the spot. Perhaps he pays them, perhaps not. 

Punishments are left to the discretion of the judges; 
but in general, when death is the penalty, nobles are be- 
headed, others burnt, broken at the wheel, torn in pieces, 
or hung. Says one writer, " A poor wretch, whose chil- 
dren have nothing to eat, engages in some contraband 
trade ; is found out and punished. A gentleman, riding 
in his post-chaise, is caught doing the same thing ; he kills 
the custom-house officer and gets off free." Sometimes : 
men are judged by the king's law, sometimes by the law 
of the Church, sometimes by tiie law of the province or 
the town ; in. one part of Auvergne, the people obey the 
written Roman law, in another the customary law. In 
one part of France, a brigand with a band of two hundred 
men is able to desolate the country for ten years without 
being brought to judgment. 

Not only do the judges buy their places, but sometimes i 



MODERN EUROPE. 463 

tfTO or three men hold the same office at the same time. 
" An officer, histead of raging and storming over the year- 
book, busies himself in inventing some new disguise for 
a masked-ball ; a magistrate, instead of counting the con- 
victions he has secured, provides a magnificent supper." 

In 1692, Lewis XIV. displaces in favor of his own nomi- 
nees the elected mayors and judicial assessors of every 
city except Lyons ; in one city alone he creates and sells 
nineteen royal offices. The sixty royal tax-collectors 
sometimes levy twice as much as they give to the treasury. 
From the close of the sixteenth to the end of the eigh- 
teenth centur}^, the royal government breaks its word 
fifty-six times. — For the war of 1688, the French people 
pay about 1200,000,000, for that of 1701, twice that 
amount ; not to mention a heavy pension paid to the king 
of England during several years to keep him quiet and to 
help him in his despotic designs at home. 

In the army there are more than one thousand generals ; 
in one single regiment of four hundred eighty-two men, 
there are one hundred and forty-two officers. One duke be- 
comes a colonel at eleven, another at seven, another a 
major at twelve. These boys are relations or favorites of 
people at court, who buy or beg the offices for them from 
the king. The common soldiers are chosen by lot from 
the lowest class. Those chosen " conceal themselves in the 
forest, where they must be pursued with arms in the hand. 
In one canton . . . the young men cut off their thumbs to 
escape the draft." The officers have plenty of money, 
good living, leisure, pleasure ; the soldier " has six sous 
a day, bread fit for dogs, and . . . kicks like those given to 
a dog"; add to this, no chance of promotion. 

Catholicism is the religion of the State ; in 1685, by 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Protestants are 
forbidden to worship in public ; all pastors must leave the 



464 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORYo 

realm in fifteen days ; the galleys for life ... if they dare 
to officiate again ; all children must be educated as 
Catholics. 

The " bank of conversions " is an institution peculiar to 
the " Old Regime." It is a fund out of which people are 
hired to be converted; some need conversion several 
times ; others have troops billeted on them until they 
subscribe to the religion of the State, when they are to be 
free for two years. This last arrangement is known by 
the name of the " Dragonnades." 

The income of the Church may be reckoned at 826,000,- 
000 ; in some parts of France, the clergy own more than 
one-half the territ' yy. Over these domains they have the 
same feudal rights as the nobles. On the other hand, the 
parish priest gets about 8100 a year ; he may have several 
parishes to look after and visit, perhaps on foot; he must 
teach the village school ; advise and comfort the peasants. 

In trade, if a man wants to sell hats, he must belong to 
the hatter's guild ; this may be entered by being the son 
of a guildman, by paying a large sum of money, by 
passing a severe examination set by tlie guild ; once in, he 
can neither sell caps nor gloves, but only hats, for other 
guilds have the exclusive right to sell caps, others to sell 
gloves. So with other trades; at Rouen, one company 
buys grain for the city, another delivers it, another grinds 
it ; not only must each company do its own particular 
work and no other, but the j^eople must deal with it 
and with no one else. The guilds pay the king large sums 
of money for these exclusive privileges. The king's 
government, we are told by De Tocqueville, constantly 
dictates how long pieces of cloth shall be woven, and what 
pattern is to be chose"n. 

Voltaire, wishing to publish in France the wonderful 
discoveries of Newton, is forbidden by the authorities to 



MODERN EUROPE. 465 

print his work. — In 1770, Imbert translates Clarke's letters 
on Spain, one of the best works then existing on tliat 
country, but it is suppressed as soon as it appears; the 
reason given is that it contains some remarks on tlie pas- 
sion of Charles III. for hunting, which are considered 
disrespectful to Lewis XV., himself very fond of tlie chase. 
These instances are typical out of a large number. 

3. Attempted Reforms in 1. 

Turgot, the first minister of Lewis XVI., 1774, proposes 
to do away with the forced and unpaid labor of the peas- 
ants; to tax the lands of the nobles and clergy; to give 
a larger part of the revenues of the clergy to the parish 
priests ; to allow men to worship according to their con- 
sciences ; to fix one code of law for the whole kingdom ; 
to abolish the guilds and the fees for engaging in trade, 
and to make the trade in grain entirely free ; to make 
thought free, and to establish a great system of public 
schools ; but in 1776 the king dismisses him, because the 
queen, the nobles, and the clergy oppose him. 

Necker, his next minister, suppresses many of the offices 
about the king's household; he frees the serfs on the 
king's domain, is the first to publish to the French people 
any account of the income and outlay of the government ; 
but courtiers and officials alike demand his dismissal. 

Necker's successor, Calonne, is obliged to own an annual 
deficit of 120,000,000 ; calls for a land tax on all classes, 
for economy in the administration and in the king's house- 
hold, and at last threatens to appeal to the people. His dis- 
missal is demanded from the king, and he is sent into exile. 

Brienne, the next royal minister, can find no Avay of 
raising money, and resigns after having proposed to reform 
the administration of justice, the system of education, and 
abolish Protestant disabilities. 



46G STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

Necker is now recalled, and advises that all citizens be 
admitted to public employments, that the press shall be 
free; but the opposition is such as to force the calling of 
the States-General (see p. 336) in order to raise money for 
the king, and to deliberate on the unfortunate affairs of 
the realm. 

STUDY ON I, 2, 3. 

What name do you give to such a government as that of France 
under the " Old Regime " ? Make a hst of the ways in which it is an 
unjust government. An oppressive one. A weak one. What is its 
support ? What great difficulty evidently hampers it ? What grave 
evils follow from this difficulty ? What governments does it in any 
way resemble ? What do you think about the changes proposed by 
the king's ministers ? What mterests evidently stand in the way of 
reform ? 

4. Extracts, Stories, Facts, and Statistics Illustrative of 
Life of the Time, 

The king lives mostly in his palace at Versailles. He has 
some ninety gentlemen to take care of his bed-chamber, nearly 
five hundred for his table, and more than fifteen hundred to 
attend to his horses. These offices about the royal person and 
household are considered the most honorable in the kingdom, 
since they are all filled by nobles whose pay is high, while their 
duties are very light or even nominal. Besides the household 
officers, the king has his guards, French and Swiss, cavalry 
and infantry, more than nine thousand men, costing the people 
annually more than $1,500,000. When the king makes a jour- 
ney, all these people must accompany him, at the expense of 
the State. 

In 1783, no less than $33,800 is paid for feeding the king's 
horses, and more than $10,000 for feeding his hunting-dogs. 
The coffee and bread for each of the ladies of the bed-chamber 
costs $400 a year. The court-kitchen, according to the printed I 
register, employs two hundred and ninety-five cooks, and the 



MODERN EUROPE. 467 

1 
total number of persons to be supported by the king amounts 

to more than lifteen thousand. 

The king also gives many presents ; this is especially true 
of Lewis X\\ ; but we find that Lewis XVI., in 178r>, gives 
awa^' more than $27,000,000, and Von Sybel reckons that the 
annual average given in this way should be reckoned at 
$20,000,000. As for Lewis XV., it is known that in one year 
'he spends about $36,000,000 on his own pleasures. As for the 
palace of Versailles itself, it costs more than $50,000,000, 
while "on the bridges, roads, public and scientific institutions" 
not more than $7,000,000 are expended. 

Around the king are the dukes, counts, and marquises, who 
care for his household ; among them are a few men, mostl}^ of 
the middle class, whom the king has asked to take charge of 
public business. These are the ministers ; as for the nobles, 
they spend their time with the king, gaming, hunting, making 
a fine appearance, amusing themselves. 

All these nobles have great estates in the country, which 
they rarely visit. Arthur Young, an English traveller of the 
time, tells us that the- nobility neither practise nor talk of 
"agriculture" ; and as for their own lands, two of the greatest 
properties of the time are described as being " wastes, deserts, 
bracken," while the residence is "probably found in the midst 
of a forest, very well peopled with deer, wild boars, and wolves" ; 
the owners are so lightly taxed that it is generally said that 
tliey pay no taxes. Yet one fails on a debt of $7,000,000, and 
another dies owing $15,000,000, and a third when charged b}' 
the king with being largely in debt, replies, "I will ask my 
agent and inform your majesty." Another owes more than 
$10,000 to her shoemaker, another more than $30,000 to a 
tailor. 

Walpole writes, "It is no dishonor (in Paris) to keep public 
gaming-houses ; there are one hundred and fifty of the first 
qualit}^ in Paris who live by it. . . . Even the princesses of the 
blood have their share in it." 

St. Simon tells us that a baron, finding that the hut of a 



468 STUDIES iisr general history. 

peasant destroyed the symmetry of bis park, brought the man 
to his own house, and kept him there while the}" removed the 
poor man's cottage elsewhere ; a joke at which the king and 
his court laughed heartily. 

St. Simon also tells us of a duke who " was better liked by 
the king and had more influence in society than anybody," but 
was a cheat and a gambler, while there were young men in " this 
singular society " who admitted to their tables notorious crimi- 
nals, who had "animating stories to tell" of their own deeds 
" as forgers or highwa3'men." 

The daughter of the king's nephew and many of her compan- 
ions are carried home drunk to Versailles, one night, while on 
another occasion the king finds the ladies of his household 
engaged in smoking, with pipes which they have borrowed 
from the Swiss guards; during the reign of Lewis XIY., 
many of the nobility are detected in secretly poisoning 
people. 

The great middle class {bourgeoisie) compose the guilds, and 
are the artisans and merchants, manufacturers and traders of 
France. If a man pays his debts or has none, he is called 
" bourgeois" ; if he marries the woman he loves, " very much 
of a bourgeois," the term being used as one of ridicule. 
Among the bourgeois, says an observer, "every one speaks 
according to his views, inclinations, and genius ; the women 
look after the house, the men after the day's business, coming 
home to some quiet game." " While the great neglect to learn 
anything ... of the mterest of princes and public affairs, and 
even of their own, . . . citizens instruct themselves in the . . . 
interests of the kingdom, stud}^ the government, . . . know 
what are the strong and weak points of a whole State." 

The peasants live in houses of stone or earth, without 
windows and with earth chimneys. They are dressed in rags, 
and never taste meat ; there are whole districts where they eat 
grass, and thousands who live on the 1)ark of trees ; they can 
neither take game from the forest, nor fish from the stream, for 
these belong to the lord of the estate. They have old and 



MODERN EUROPE. 469 

awkward tools, and can get no bettor ; when the crops are np, 
the pigeons and the rabbits and the deer destro}^ much that the 
peasant can raise ; but he cannot protect himself under pain of 
heavy punishment, since the lord must liavc the pleasure of the 
hunt, and when tlie hunt comes, horse and hound may trample 
down liis only wheat-field. The tax-gatherer never fails to 
come to get mone^' for the king or money for the Church. Land 
worth $.S00 may pay $600 for taxes ; it will surely pay $400 ; 
can the peasant not pay, his furniture must be sold to meet the 
tax. If he want salt, he must buy it of the king ; should he not 
need it, still he must buy or go to prison or the galleys ; this 
is the hated '^Gabelle.'' As for his lord, to him he must pay 
for feudal dues, a part of all his fields, his orchards or iiis vine- 
yard 3'ield. For a certain number of days each 3'ear he must 
give his own labor and that of his oxen and his horses, even 
though the lord should choose to take him from the very harvest- 
field (corvees) . If he is bound to give five days of such labor, 
and has a bad lord, he may be forced to give one hundred. 
He must bake in the lord's oven and grind at the lord's mill, 
though the miller and baker would do it cheaper and better. 
He can sell no wine after vintage, until the lord has had a 
chance to sell for thirt}' or fortj^ days in the first market ; he 
must pay a toll on the road, a toll at the ferry, a tax on all he 
takes to the fair. If he wish to cure the sick or discover a 
thief, he will "go to a sorcerer, who divines this b}' means of 
a sieve." In 1789, it is told and believed among the soldiers, 
that the princes and counts of Paris are throwing flour into the 
Seine so as to starve the people. " In Auvergne ... a conta- 
gious fever making its appearance, two hundred men assemble 
to destroy the house of a man whom they believe has caused 
it by sorcery." There are very few schools ; in one part of 
France but ten in fifty parishes. 

For two centuries, at least, before the Revolution, the favorite 
resort of the Parisian populace is the place of execution, where 
they see the law carrying out its iiorrible punishments with all 
sorts of tortures, sueli as tearing liy red-hot pincers. 



470 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

STUDY ON LIFE OF THE "OLD REGIME." 

Make a list of all the ways in which the king injures France by 
his style of life. To what class is he evidently in debt? In what 
way will they regard his style of life? What other classes injure 
France? What part of France or of her people is injured? ilow 
injured? What part of the French people is sonnd? Name the 
ways in which it is sound. Name all the ways in which the French 
peasant, or man of the fourth estate, is an undesirable citizen. What 
part of the French people will try to destroy this "Old Regime"? 
What part will try to reform it? Give reasons for each of these 
two answers. How far do you attribnte the character of French 
life under the " Old Regime " to the organization of the State ? 
Illustrate from each class of people. What were the ideals of this 
period? How were these ideals injnrious? 

6. Extracts and Sayhigs Illustrative of Thought and 
Feeling under '* Old Regime,"' 

a. From Bossuet. 

" The royal authority and person are sacred." " Kings are 
gods, and share in a manner the divine independence." " As 
all perfection and every virtue is united in God, so all the 
power of private individuals is united in the person of the 
king." 

b. From the Kings. 

" I myself am the State." " The worst calamity which can 
befall a king is ... to be obliged to receive the law from his 
people." "All property of whatever sort within our realm 
belongs to us in virtue of the title of king." " It is the will of 
God, who has given kings to man, that they should be served 
as his vicegerents." "It is the wall of God that every subject 
should implicitly obey his king." 

" In dispensing with the exact observance of treaties, we do 
not violate them ; for the language of such instruments is never 
to be understood literally." 

"We ought to consider the good of our subjects more than 
our own, . . . and it is a fine thing to deserve from them the 
name of father as well as master." (Lewis XIV.) 



^ MODEPvX EUROPE. 471 

■' 

"- 1 know what fire the rights of the authority I have received 
from God. It is not for any of ni}- subjects to decide what are 
their extent or to endeavor to limit them." (Lewis XV.) 

" It is h'gal," said Lewis XVI., in speaking of a very illegal 
act, " it is legal because I will it." 

c. From Voltaire. 

" It may be a question which is the most useful member of 
the State, the well-powdered nobleman who knows the precise 
hour at which the king rises and retires for the night, ... or 
a merchant who enriches his country, issues orders from his 
counting-house to Surat and Cairo, and contributes to the world 
at large." 

******** 

''How I love the boldness of the English! how I love men 
who say what they think ! " 

" I wish to write a history, not of wars, but of society ; and 
to ascertain how men lived in the interior of their families, and 
what were the arts which they commonly cultivated." ^ 

d. From Rousseau. 

"Your ver}' governments are the cause of the evils which 
they pretend to remedy. Ye scepters of iron ! ye absurd laws, 
ye we reproach for our inability to fulfil our duties on earth ! " 

"I am ... an active and intelligent being, and ... I dare 
claim the honor of thinking." 

"O conscience, divine instinct, immortal and celestial voice, 
the unfailing guide of an ignorant and finite but free and intel- 
ligent being." "There is no sacred and inviolable charter 
binding a people to the forms of an established constitution. 
The rioht to chanoe these is the first (guarantee of all ris-hts." 



1 In an important history of France put forth in 1770, the authors regret 
tliat historians had always given the history of a single man rather than 
that of a people. " In the work of Montesquieu, on the ' Spirit of the 
Laws,' he studies the way in which . . . the legislation of a people is 
connected with their climate, soil, and food." 



472 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

" All being equal through the law, they must be brought up 
together and in the same manner. The law must regenerate 
. . . their studies. They must, at the very least, take part in 
public exercises, in horse-races, in games of strength and of 
agility." 

" He who first enclosed a plot of ground, and took it into his 
head to say,' This belongs to me,' and found people simple enough 
to believe him, was the true founder of civil society. What 
crimes, what wars, what murders, what misery, and what 
horrors would have been spared the human race if some one, 
pulling up the landmark and filling up the ditch, had cried out 
to his fellows : Be wary of that impostor, you are lost if you 
forget that no one has the right to the ground, and that its fruits 
are the property of all ! " 

''The deputies of the people are not, nor can they be, its 
representatives ; they are simply its commissioners, and can 
establish no final compact. Every law not ratified by the 
people themselves is null and is no law." 

The new "Heloise" of Rousseau was only let out of the 
public libraries for an hour at a time, and in 1788, Marat was 
to be heard reading the "Social Contract" of the same author 
in the streets of Paris to enthusiastic hearers. 

e. From Helvetius and his FoUoivers. 

"In England, the people are respected; every citizen can 
take some part in the management of affairs, and authors are 
allowed to enlighten the public respecting its own interests." 

Helvetius taught that all notions of duty and of virtue must 
be tested by their relation to the senses, that everything we 
have and everything we are, we owe to the external world. . . . 
Condillac, in his widely-read work on the "mind," asserts that 
" everything we know is the result of sensation . . . and that to 
nature we owe all of our knowledge." 

"To preserve one's self, to be happy, is instinct, right, and 
duty." 

" But, to be happy, contribute to the happiness of others : if 



MODERN EUROPE. 473 

you wish them to be useful to you, be useful to them. ..." 
"Be good, because goodness links hearts together; be gentle, 
because gentleness wins affection ; ... be citizens, because 
a country is necessary to ensure your safety and well-being." 

/. From Taine. 

" A small temple to Friendship is erected in a park. A little 
altar to Benevolence is set up in a private closet. Dresses 
(X la Jean Jacques Rousseau are worn analogous to the princi- 
ples of that author. Headdresses are selected with puffs au 
sentiment, in which one may place the portrait of one's daughter, 
mother, canary, or dog, the whole garnished with the hair of 
one's father or intimate friend." 

"The queen arranges a village for herself at the Trianon, 
where, dressed in a frock of white cambric muslin and a gauze 
neck-handkerchief, and with a straw hat, she fishes in the lake 
and sees her cows milked." 

"The Duchess of Bourbon goes out early in the morn- 
ing incognito to bestow alms, and to see the poor in their 
garrets." 

"When a society-author reads his work in a drawing-room, 
fashion requires that the company should utter exclamations 
*j,nd sob." 

" Bachaumont, in 1762, notices a deluge of pamphlets, tracts, 
and political discussions, a rage for arguing on financial and 
government matters." As the Revolution approaches, "agri- 
culture, econoni}-, reform, philosophy," writes Walpole, "are 
the style, even at the court." Another contemporar}^ writes : — 

"The exiled parliaments are studying public rights at tlieir 
sources, and conferring together on them." 

STUDY ON THOUGHT AND FEELING UNDER "OLD Re'gIME." 

What ideas were evidently abroad in regard to the relation between 
loyalty to the king and to religion ? Tlie relation between the king 
and the law? The king and property? What historic origin for 
each of these ideas ? What faults do such ideas cultivate ? What 



474 yTUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

reason for a severe censorship of men like Voltaire and Rousseau 'i 
How were their ideas and those of their contemporaries dangerous to 
the " Old Kegime " ? Was the feeling of the noble and rich for the 
poor a fashionable sentiment or a sincere sympathy? Prove it. 
What trace of English influence on French thought ? Find other 
traces in the general history of the period. What thoroughly modern 
ideas do you find in these extracts ? AVhat ideas that are still con- 
sidered dangerous ? What excuse for these dangerous ideas to be 
found in the " Old Regime " ? What facts prove the power of Vol- 
taire? Of Rousseau? What spirit appears in the extracts from 
Rousseau? What do Helvetius and his followers make the founda- 
tion of right-doing ? What danger in this ? 

In General. — Why was thoughtfulness dangerous to the " Old 
Regime"? What great difficulties in the way of reform? What 
special difficulty in the peasant class ? How did the badness of the 
French roads affect the ease of reform ? In what ways did the people 
need Liberty, 1^'raternity, Equality? What force in the motto chosen 
for this study (p. 438) ? 



n. THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE WARS 
OF NAPOLEON. STATES-GENERAL OF 1789 TO CON- 
GRESS OF VIENNA, 1815. 

" For I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of 
the fathers upon the chiklren unto the Ihird and fourth generation." — 

Exodus. 
" The mills of God grind slowly, but they grind exceeding small." 

Chief contemporary and original sources of history : the 
reports and the petitions uf depaitments sent up to the 
States-General of 1789 ; files of the " Moniteur," the lead- 
ing newspaper of Paris, and of other contemporary joui 
nals ; private letters and diaries ; state papers as before ; 
official and private correspondence of Napoleon, Stein, 
Metternich and their official contemporaries ; the Annua] 
Register ; contemporary literature. 



MODERN EUKOPE. 475 

Chief historians accessible in English, in general, as for 
D ; special for the period, the histories of modern Europe, 
by Fyffe and Schlosser ; histories of French Revolution, 
by Von Sybel, De Tocqueville, Mignet, Carlyle ; Seeley's 
Life and Times of Stein, Lanfrey's Napoleon. 



Chronological Stiminary of Leading Events, 
1789-1799. 



The French government (Lewis XVL and his 
ministers) being unable to raise money, and find- 
itself in other difficulties, calls together the 



mg 



1789 to 

Sept. 31, 

1793. 



States-General ; this assembly naming itself the National 
Asse^nhly^ demands the reform of many abuses, and takes 
an oath ( Oath of the Tennis-court) not to separate until it 
has given France a new constitution ; royal troops are 
collected near Paris, as the Parisians suspect, with the 
design of forcibl}^ dissolving the assembly, or of coercing 
its measures. The citizens thereupon storm the Bastille, 
the royal prison where the government has long disposed 
at will of its enemies, and utterly destroy it; they form 
themselves into a " National Giuwd^^^ under the command 
of Lafayette, in order to protect the National Assembly; 
other cities follow the example of Paris ; the peasants in 
the provinces revolt against the nobles, recklessly burning 
and destroying, especially title-deeds of land and all papers 
relating to feudal tenure ; many nobles leave the country 
(^Emiijrants) ; on the night of Aug. 4, 1789, the nobles 
in the Assembly surrender all their feudal rights and priv- 
ileges. The Paris mob, accompanied by the national guard, 
compel the king and the National Assembly to come from 
Versailles to Paris ; a constitution is offered to the king 
which demands that a representative assembly shall form 
part of the government; this assembly is to have the 



476 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

power of making laws and voting taxes, and neither war 
nor peace are to be declared without its consent. The 
property of the clergy is confiscated to the use of the state, 
which in turn agrees to support them. The king accepts 
the constitution, but endeavors secretly to leave France. 
The Parisians, arresting him on the way, and suspecting 
him of an alliance with other European monarchs to 
put down the revolution by force of arms, bring the 
royal family back to Paris and set a close watch upon 
them. 

Austria and Prussia now demand of France satisfaction 
for the German princes who have lost lands in Elsass and 
Lorraine through international treaties ; satisfaction to the 
pope for the loss of Avignon, and the repression of revo- 
lutionary movements calculated to disturb other states. 
France answers by a declaration of war, and sends out 
three armies to the Rhine-frontier. Their ill-success is 
attributed to treachery at home ; the king and the " emi- 
grants " are believed to be the instigating cause of 
foreign attack and domestic failure. The mob there- 
upon storms the Tuileries, and imprisons the king (Aug. 
10, 1792). 

All resident nobles and all suspected of sympathizing 
either with king or emigrants are imprisoned or massacred 
(^September massacres) by the Parisian mob, under the 
direction of Danton. These massacres include even con- 
stitutionalists who defend the constitution signed by Lewis 
XVL Sept. 21, 1792, France is declared a Republic, and 
offers her aid to all peoples who wish to overthrow the 
" Old Regime." 

Owing to imprisonment, emigration, and mas- 
sacre, the governing power falls largely into the 
hands of the Parisian mob and their armed sup- 



Sept. 31, 

1798, to 

July, 1793 



port, that is, into the hands of men, poor, ignorant, and 



MODERN EUROPE. 477 

inexperienced. War on the republic continues without; 
on the pretext of guarding the revolution from ail treach- 
ery at home, assassination and imprisonment are still the 
order of the day within ; Jan. 21, 1793, the king is con- 
demned and executed. England, Holland, Spain, and the 
emperor join in alliance against the French Republic; 
the peasants in La Vendee declare against the revolution, 
and rise in stubborn revolt ; the violent and more moder- 
ate parties of Paris are in conflict; tlie more violent and 
ignorant by force of mob-rule and terrorism win the lead, 
establish a "Committee of Public Safety," by which tlie 
more moderate revolutionists (^Girondists} are arrested 
and imprisoned. 

Reign of Terror, — Robespierre, one of the [j-. — -~ 
" Committee of Public Safety," and extreme I to 
in his views of the necessity of the imprisonment \''^^' ^^^^' 



and assassination of all who do not sympathize with the 
most radical revolutionary ideas, rules France by commit- 
tees, established throughout the country, with power to 
watch, arrest, and execute without trial all suspected per- 
sons ; imprisonment and assassination are continuous, in- 
creasing in violence with the news of defeat all along the 
frontier. In Nantes alone 15,000 are put to death in three 
months by a single tribunal; Marie Antoinette, the queen, 
is now executed; soon follows the execution of the more 
moderate republican leaders (G-iro7idists~) ; the guillotine 
is the strong arm of the law. The Convention declares 
the worship of God abolished and that of Reason estab- 
lished. 

Continued defeat abroad ; Robespierre procures the 
condemnation of his enemies in the Convention; demands 
and procures a decree abolishing the w^orship of Reason 
and acknowledging the existence of a Supreme Being; fes- 
tivals for his worship are proclaimed, Robespierre acting 



478 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

as high priest; enormous increase of executions in all 
classes, of men suspected by Robespierre of interference 
in the revolution. All parties finally combine suddenly 
against Robespierre, who is condemned and executed by 
his own former supporters. 

Reaction. — More moderate councils pre^'ail in 
Paris, and many emigrants return; the French 
Republic is successful on the frontier; Prus- 



July, 1794, 

TO 

Oct., 1795. 



sia makes peace with her, and Spain soon follows. A 
new Constitution is adopted, which gives the executive 
power to a Directory of five, and legislative power to 
two representative chambers, a Council of Elders and a \ 
Council of Five Hundred. The royalists now return to i 
Paris, and begin to instigate revolt against this constitu- 
tion and the existing government. The Convention calls : 
to its aid Napoleon Bonaparte, who, by his admirable 
management of its armed forces, is able effectively to guard} 
it ; thus the Directory is established. 

The Directory. — France and Austria being, 
still at war. Napoleon is sent to command thei 
troops on the Italian frontier; he compels thei 



Oct., 1795, 

TO 

1799. 



king of Sardinia to cede Savoy and Nice to France ; he( 
conquers Lombardy, and gains the cession of North Italian^ 
territory from the pope. 

France declares war on Venice, where she abolishes the! 
aristocratic government and proclaims a republic; she, 
forms North Italy into a Cisalpine Republic under French 
protection. France and Austria come to terms, and sign 
the peace of Campo Formio ; the Belgian provinces (Aus-i; 
trian Netherlands) are surrendered to France; Venice goeS; 
to Austria, who agrees to recognize the Cisalpine Republic 
By secret articles, Austria agrees to the cession of the west 
bank of the Rhine to France, while France is to use hei 
influence to gain new lands for Austria from Austria's^ 



MODERN europp:. 479 

nearest neighbors; the navigation of the Rhine is to be 
equally free to France and Germany. 

The French occupy Rome, proclaim the Roman Repub- 
lic, and take the pope captive ; they enter Switzerland, 
proclaim it a Helvetic Republic, and annex Geneva to 
France. Bonaparte sails for Egypt, intending thence to 
attack the Indian possessions of England; after winning 
the " Battle of the Pyramids," he takes Cairo ; but the 
French fleet is destroyed by a British squadron under 
Nelson at the battle of Aboukir, and the expedition is, on 
the whole, unsuccessful. Napoleon suddenly returns from 
Egypt, and finding the Directory ineffective and in confu- 
sion, helps overthrow it, and establishes a government 
according to a fourth constitution (of the year VIII.^. By 
this constitution, Bonaparte is first Consul of the Republic, 
and entrusted with its executive power; eighty elected 
senators appoint, from names selected by popular election, 
men for the two legislative chambers ; one of these cham- 
bers, the tribunate, discusses the proposals of the Consul 
without voting ; the other, the legislative chamber, votes 
without discussing. France is divided into prefectures, 
through which the law is equally and uniformly adminis- 
tered according to the '-'-Code Napoleon.'*^ 

STUDY ON I. 

What reasonable cause do you find in the " Old Regime " in France 
for each of the following events from 1789 to Aug. 10, 1792 ; — The 
"Oath of the Tennis-court"? The formation of a national guard? 
The destruction of title-deeds in the country ? The demand for a 
constitution signed by the king ? The confiscation of Church prop- 
erty ? The suspicion of a league between Lewis and other kings ? 
The cruelty of the Parisian mob ? The idea that to kill the king is 
to strike the most decisive blow at the " Old Regime " ? The declara- 
tion of the worship of Reason? 

Name three facts which prove the inherent weakness of the " Old 



480 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Regime " at the opening of the Revokition. If the body of the 
people had approved of it, how could it have met revolt? What 
do the demands of the first constitution offered to Lewis XVI. 
tell us of the wrongs felt by France ? How would the attacks of 
foreign powers affect French patriotism? How affect the sympathy 
with the Revolution ? 

From Sept., 1792, to July, 1794, France is named a republic : prove 
from the events of the time that this government was a despotism. 
In what two forms does this despotism appear ? How is it supported ? 
Who is to blame for it? What forces the Directory to employ Bona- 
parte ? In proclaiming this or that country a republic, what republi- 
can principle does France violate ? 

How does the constitution of the year VIII. differ from that of 
the " Old Regime " ? What positive blessings does the rule of Napo- 
leon bring to France? What resemblance between Napoleon and 
Cromwell? What solid results has the Revolution accomplished? 
How far has it been a political and how far a social revolution? 
What is the force of each of the mottoes on p. 474? 



Chronological Sutmnary of Leading Events^ 
1799-1815. 

Foreign war continues ; the Second Ooalition 
of Russia, Austria, Great Britain, and lesser 
powers is formed against Napoleon; they plan 



1T99 

TO 
1804. 



to drive liim from Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and 
Italy. Napoleon, having returned from Egypt, crosses the 
Alps by the Great St. Bernard, and defeats the allies at 
Marengo. In 1801 the peace of Lundville is signed. This 
peace confirms France in the possession of Netherlands, 
and gives her the left bank of the Rhine ; gives Tuscauy 
to a younger branch of the House of Austria; recognizes 
the Batavian (Dutch), Helvetian (Swiss), and Cisalpine 
Republics. Spain gives Louisiana to France. 

France is re-organized by Napoleon ; the priests and the 
bishops are to be appointed and supported by the govern- 
ment ; education is organized on a uniform basis and sup- 



^ 



MODERN EUROPE. 481 

ported by the state. — France and Great Britain make 
peace. — Napoleon is now proclaimed hereditary emperor 
of France by the tribunate and senate ; the people through- 
out France confirm his title by an almost unanimous 
popular election (^j^l^^iscite)^ and he is crowned by the 
pope (1804). 

Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden, con- 
tinue war against France, so as to reduce her 
power more nearly to a level with their own 



1804 
TO 

1806. 



The British naval victory of Nelson at Trafalgar (1805) 
breaks the power of the French fleet. At Austerlitz (the 
battle of three emperors) Napoleon defeats Austria and 
Russia, and concludes a peace with Austria, by which 
he gains large Italian possessions and is recognized as 
King of Italy. He gives Naples to one of his brothers, 
and Holland to another, giving each the royal title. The 
smaller German princes form the Confederation of the 
Rhine under the protectorate of Napoleon. The Emperor 
Francis, keeping the title of emperor for his hereditary 
Austrian estates, abdicates the crown of the Holy Roman 
Empire, which now comes to an end (1806). 

Prussia and Russia make war on Napoleon, 
but are defeated at Jena and elsewhere. The 
peace of Tilsit, dictated by Napoleon, confirms 



1806 

TO 
1815. 



the power and the titles of himself and his brothers, gives 
him for free disposal all lands between the Rhine and 
the Elbe, and extorts from Prussia the promise not to 
keep a standing army of more than 42,000 men. 

One of the brothers of Napoleon is declared king of 
Spain ; the Spaniards rise in revolt in defence of their 
national king. They are aided by the British, and prove 
a serious barrier to the Napoleonic advance. Austria 
endeavors to free Germany from his power, but is disas- 
trously defeated at Wagram, and compelled to sign the 



MODERN EUROPE. 483 

peace of Vienna ceding 32,000 square miles to Napoleon 
and his allies. War between Russia and Napoleon, the 
latter now having as allies Austria and Prussia. Napoleon 
invades Russia and occupies Moscow ; Russian patriots 
burn it, and Napoleon retreats; cold, famine, and continual 
attacks from Russian troops and Cossacks disorganize his 
army, and cost him at least 300,000 lives. 

Prussia and Russia, joined by Sweden and Austria, unite 
against Napoleon in the " War of Liberation " ; the French 
are driven back ; the allies enter Paris itself in triumph, 
and the French senate are compelled to declare that 
Napoleon has forfeited the throne. He abdicates, and is 
banished to Elba. Lewis XVIII. is declared king of 
France, which he is to rule according to a constitution 
somewhat imitating that of England, but with too many 
limitations to be satisfactory. Napoleon, hearing of the 
discontent of France, returns, is received with enthusiasm 
by army and people, and enters Paris in triumph. King- 
Lewis flees to Ghent, and the sovereigns of Europe pro- 
claim a " ban " against Napoleon, and raise great armies to 
defeat him. This final attack upon his power ends in the 
battle of Waterloo (1815), a thorough defeat for the 
emperor, who is banished as prisoner of war to St. Helena, 
where he dies in exile. The allied monarchs now enter 
Paris, and again reinstate Lewis XVHI. as king of the 
French. The monarchs of Russia, Austria, and Prussia 
now form the " Holy Alliance " in order to detend the 
established order in morality, religion, government. The 
affairs of Europe are settled at the Congress of Vienna, 
by the Pentarchy of Great Poivers (England, France, 
Austria, Prussia, Russia) acting through their ministers, 
prominent of whom are Metternich, Wellington, Talley- 
rand. The chief points of settlement are as follows; — 

Austria receives Lombardy and Venice, and Prussia re- 



484 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

ceives various German territories ; the states of Germany 
form a confederacy to take the place of the old empire , 
Holland and the Austrian Netherlands are to form a king- 
dom of the Netherlands. The Partition of Poland between 
Russia, Prussia, and Austria is confirmed.^ The old royal 
dynasties are restored to the various Italian states and to 
Spain. 

STUDY ON 2. 

What domestic and foreign necessity has France for Napoleon? 
What two reasons have the nionarchs of Europe for their fear of 
Napoleon ? During the Napoleonic wars what natural boundary does 
France regain? When has she had this boundary before? What 
republican principle acknowledged by the elevation of Napoleon? ' 
By what acts does he violate republican principles ? What supports 
the Napoleonic power in France? The dominion of Napoleon in 
1810 (see map) is almost identical with the dominion of what former • 
French ruler ? When and with whom did the title of Emperor, which 
comes to an end in 1806, originate? What countries of modern t| 
Europe have been formed from the " Holy Roman Empire " ? What ] 
feeling calls the Spaniards to war against Napoleon ? Where next 
does he meet the same enemy to his advance ? What is the evident 
reason for the temporary alliances of Austria and Prussia wdth Napo- 
leon ? Napoleon banished, why do the European monarchs feel it 
necessary to form the " Holy Alliance " ? Is the Congress of Vienna 
representative of the " Old Regime " or of the Revolution ? Prove it. 

1 Poland suffered three partitions among these powers, — those of ( 
1772, 1793, and 1795. The causes leading to its division may be seen in I 
the following diplomatic statement on the part of Russia : — 

" Should Poland be firmly and lastingly united to Saxony, a power of 
the first rank will arise, and one which will be able to -exercise the most 
sensible pressure upon each of its neighbours. We are greatly concerned 
in this, in consequence of the extension of our Polish frontier; and Prussia 
is no less so, from the inevitable increase which would ensue of Saxon 
influence in the German Empire. We therefore suggest that Prussia, 
Austria, and Russia should come to an intimate understanding witli one 
another on this most important subject." 

Ostermann added "that the question lay entirely with the three powers, 
that if they were agreed, they might laugh at the rest of the world." 



486 ' STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOHY. 

3. Special Study of the Prussian Mevolution and the 
Prussian Leadership in the ** War of Liberation,''^ 

a* Prussia at the Treaty of Tilsit. 

Id 1806 Germany falls into three chief divisions, — the 
Confederation ,of the Rhine, a union of German states 
under the lead of Napoleon ; the empire of Austria ; the 
kingdom of Prussia (see map, p. 482). By the treaty 
of Tilsit, Prussia accedes to the following special terms 
from Napoleon: the loss of nearly half her territory, 
which is parcelled out to various powers ; the payment 
of 128,000,000, secured, meanwhile, by French occupa- 
tion of her fortresses, the garrisons to be supported at 
Prussian expense ; the reduction of her army to 42,000 
men. 

The organization of the Prussian state is that of the 
" Old Regime " : an absolute rule of the king and his 
favorites, uninfluenced by any popular assemblies ; three 
fixed, hereditary classes among the people, — nobles, citi- 
zens, serfs. Furthermore, the land, like the people, is 
divided into noble-land, citizen-land, serf-land ; nor can it 
either be given or sold from one class to another. Thus 
runs the law of Frederick the Great : " The. peasantry 
can not alienate a field, mortgage it, cultivate it differ- 
ently, change their occupation, or marry, without their 
lord's permission. If they leave his estate, he can pursue 
them in every direction and bring them back by force. 
He has the right of watching over their private life, and 
chastizes them if they are drunk or lazy. When young, 
they serve for years as servants in his mansion ; as 
cultivators, they owe him corvSes^ 

As in France, the king is supposed " to live of his own," 

1 Throughout this study, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to 
Prof. Seeley's Lif^ and Times of Stein. 



I 



MODERN EUROPE. 487 

the nobles are free from tuxes, and in a crisis such as this 
of the Treat}^ of Tilsit, there is no constitutional way of 
aiding the king by national taxes. The bulk of the army 
is composed of serfs forced into service, for whom there is 
no promotion, the officers being nobles, and nobles alone. 
Military punishments are degrading, and there is no uni- 
formity in the demand for service, some districts of Prussia 
being even freed from furnishing troops. 

Meanwhile, the people are pervaded by the principles of 
the French Revolution, of which Napoleon appears to the 
popular mind as the personified leader. 

h. Prussia from Tilsit to the War of Liberation. 

In order to meet the difficulties of the above situation, 
and render Prussia fit to meet Napoleon, Stein, the prime 
minister of the Prussian king, and the statesmen associated 
with him propose and carry out the following reforms: 
free trade in land., that is, the peasant, noble, or citizen 
may buy or sell any sort of landed estate, whether noble, 
citizen, or peasant land ; — free cJioice of occupation ; 
thus the noble or the peasant may become a trader or 
an artisan ; abolition of serfdom (Emancipating Edict 
of 1807). Furthermore, all Prussians without distinc- 
tion of rank are to serve in the army and to be the armed 
defenders of their state; disgraceful corporal punishment 
is to be abolished, and promotion to depend on merit 
alone. 

In 1808 Napoleon enters Spain, and issues a manifesto 
opening as follows, with his titles : " Napoleon, by the 
Grace of God, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, 
Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine." He is met 
by an uprising of the Spanish people, whose feeling is 
expressed by the following extracts from a Spanish pam- 
phlet of the time : " Yes I Napoleon, that is, Napodragon, 



488 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Apolljon, Ruler of the Abyss, King of the monsters of 
hell, heretics, and heretic princes, Abominable Beast, Pro- 
tector, Head and Soul of the Confederation of the Rhine, 
that is, of the Seven Heads and Ten Horns of the Beast 
which bear blasphemies against Jesus Christ and his 
Church, against God and the Saints. That is the body 
of the Beast, and Napoleon is the head." Napoleon had 
promised them reform, to which they answer ; " You will 
bring us a Calvinist reform, to introduce the innovations of 
the Protestants, as your Ministers, Senators, etc., are mostly 
of this sect, or else ai3ostates, atheists, and Jews. . . ." 
This popular insurrection fails, but causes Napoleon such 
serious difficulty that Stein, watching from Prussia, writes 
thus of it : " Affairs in Spain make a deep impression ; 
they prove what one should have seen long ago. It will 
be a good thing to spread the news of them cautiously 
among our people. . . . Indignation grows day by day in 
Germany. We must encourage it, and seek men who may 
fire it." Soon after, in an official report he writes : 
''What, then, is to be done? Shall we submit or resist? 
We must therefore keep alive in the nation the feeling of 
discontent with this oppression, with our de2:)endence on a 
foreign nation, insolent and dail}^ growing more frivolous. 
We must keep them familiar with the thought of self- 
help, of the sacrifice of life and of property, which in 
any case will soon become a possession and a prey to the 
ruling nation. . . ." 

Meanwhile, in Berlin itself, Fichte is delivering a most 
popular course of lectures, afterwards published in book- I 
form, from which the following extracts are taken : — ' 

"What, then, is the spirit that can be put at the helm in | 
such a case [as that in which Germanv now finds herself] ? . . . 
What but the consuming flame of the higher patriotism, which 



MODERN EUROPE. 489 

conceives the nation as the embodiment of the Eternal ; for 
which the liigh-minded man devotes himself with joy, and the 
low-minded man . . . must be made to devote himself. , . . 
You at least have heard the Germans spoken of as one. You 
have seen a visible sign of their unity, an Empire and an Impe- 
rial Union, . . . among you have been heard from time to time 
voices that w^ere inspired by that higher patriotism. Your suc- 
cessors will grow accustomed to other views, they will adopt 
foreign forms and another current of life and affairs, and how 
long W'ill the time be till no one lives any longer who has seen 
Germans or heard of them ? " 

Meanwhile, secret societies are formed in Prussia and 
other parts of Germany, having for their object incle2:>en- 
dence of Napoleon ; prominent among these are the 
gymnastic unions (Turn-Vereine), whose founder, Jahn, 
has the idea that the German youth should be trained for 
war by strenuous exercises in time of peace. Gradually 
two strong parties grow up in Prussia, the policy of one 
being to conciliate Napoleon, that of the other, to rid the 
country of everything French. 

Napoleon now demands of the Prussian king the dis- 
missal of Stein. Stein, temporarily banished, is invited 
to Russia by the czar. Once in St. Petersburg, he bends 
every energy to unite Russia with Prussia and with other 
German states against Napoleon ; to this end he causes 
proclamations, pamphlets, songs of a patriotic nature, to 
be circulated throughout the Prussian army and among 
the Prussian people. 

c. " War of Lihe7^ation.^^ 

In the midst of these endeavors comes Napoleon's reverse 
at Moscow, and his consequent retreat. The czar, urged 
on by Stein, follows Napoleon into Prussia, and declares 
himself ready to free her from the tyrant of Europe. The 



490 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

king, bound to Napoleon by treaty, is helpless ; his chief 
general Yorck, however, thus decides : " Our enemy only 
gains time by our delay ; we lose it ; every moment for us 
is an irrevocable loss. With bleeding heart I burst the 
bond of obedience, and wage war on my own account. 
The army wants war with France, the people want it, and 
so does the king, but the king has no free will. The army 
must make his will free." The czar, also, regarding the 
Prussian king as under compulsion, declares Stein provi- 
sional ruler of Prussia, with power to organize the people 
for war. Stein calls together meetings of the old Assem- 
blies of Estates in various provinces, and the people with 
one enthusiasm declare for a "War of Liberation," and 
in alliance with Austria and Russia, arm themselves for 
victory. For the result, see 2. 

STUDY ON 3. 

In order to free herself from Napoleon, what two material forces 
must Prussia command? What moral feeling among her people? 
What in the Prussian organization stands directly in the way of her 
possessing each of the two former necessities ? From this point of 
view, what is the value of each of the reforms proposed by Stein and 
his associates ? What parallel between these reforms and those pro- 
posed by the French Revolution ? How far back must we go to find 
the historic origin of the three classes of Prussia? What reason for 
the Prussian sympathy with Napoleon? What effect will the Prus- 
sian reforms have upon this sympathy? What feeling will be aroused 
to counteract it ? What reason do you now discover for the intense 
popular dislike of Napoleon in Spain? Why does Stein wish to 
spread the news of the Spanish insurrection in Germany ? What 
power does he perceive in it which can be employed against Napo- 
leon ? Of what value is Fichte to the Prussian Revolution? Of 
what value are the secret societies? What do you think of Jahn's 
idea? What historic example could he quote? W^hat was Napo- 
leon's opinion of Stein's measures? How do you know? What does 
Stein evidently consider the greatest power he can employ against 
Napoleon? What feelings in Yorck prove the strongest? What 



MODERN EUROPE. 491 

revolutionary principle recognized by Stein in calling together the 
old Prussian estates? What relation between the Prussian Revolu- 
tion and the " War of Liberation " ? Was that revolution funda- 
mentally political or social? 



III. NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1815-1880. 
Chief contemporary and original sources : 

(Fill these out from your own knowledge and observation.) 



Chief historians accessible in English : In general, same 
as for D and E \ for special period, Schlosser, Alison, 
Mackenzie, Fyffe. 

"Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky. 
The flying cloud, the frosty light ; 
***** 
" Ring out a slowly dying cause. 

And ancient forms of party strife; 
Ring in the nobler modes of life, 
With sweeter manners, purer laws. 

T^ y^ 7^ v^ v^ 

" Ring out false pride in place and blood, 
The civic slander and the spite ; 
Ring in the love of truth and right ; 
Ring in the common love of good. 

***** 
" Ring in the valiant man and free, 
The larger heart, the kindlier hand ; 
Ring out the darkness of the land. 
Ring in the Christ that is to be." — Tennyson. 

''This world means something to the capable." — Goethe. 

" The truth shall make you free." — Christ. 



492 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



1. Organizations of the Nineteenth Century. 

The organizations of the nineteenth-century state may 
be seen in the following typical constitutions : — 

a. Constitution of Crreat Britain^ 1880. 



Parts of the 
State in 


War. 


Finance. 


Law. 


Administration. 


a. Monarch ; 


Declares 


Supported by 


Sanctions 


Must convoke d at 


hereditary 


war and 


a fixed regu- 


laws 


least once a year ; 


king or 


peace in 


lar grant 


passed by 


dissolves it; sends 


queen. 


the name 


from the 


d; con- 


and receives am- 




of the na- 


public 


sulted by 


bassadors and 




tion; chief 


revenue. 


b; may 


other diplomatic 




of the ar- 




propose 


agents; makes 




my and 




laws; has 


alliances and com- 




navy, but 




right of 


mercial treaties, 




can main- 




pardon. 


subject to consent 




tain neither 






of d ; appoints b. 




in British 










territory 










without 










consent of 
d. 








h. Prime 


Decides on 


Lays the 


Proposes 


Chief of the Cabinet 


minister 


measures 


financial 


new meas- 


bringing their 


(Premier) ; 


of war and 


demands of 


ures {bills) 


measures before d ; 


appointed 


peace in 


the govern- 


which 


executive chief of 


by the 


council with 


ment before 


take pre- 


the government. 


monarch 


a and c, 


db; 


cedence 




from tlie 


and subject 


salaried 


of other 




most prom- 


to consent 


official. 


bills in 




inent lead- 


of d. 




the dis- 




ers of the 






cussions 




dominant 






of d. 




party in 










the House 










of Com- 










mons; 











MODERN EUROPE. 



493 





Parts of the 
State in 


War. 


Finance. 


Law. 


Administration. 


changed 










witli 










changes of 










party 










power. 










c. Cabinet ; 


Discuss 


Propose 


Discuss 


Subordinate execu- 


council of 


and decide 


taxes and 


and for- 


tives in the various 


the minis- 


on course 


the direction 


mulate 


departments of 


ters of the 


of action 


of national 


bills to be 


the government. 


treasury, 
State, war. 


to be pro- 
posed to 


expenditure 
to db; 


laid be- 
fore the 




navy, etc. 
{Secreta- 


the country. 


salaried 
officials, 


Com- 
mons. 




ries). 




paid from 

public 

treasury. 






d. Parlia- 










ment, com- 










posed of 
da. House of 


Give or with- 




Propose 


Criticis: 


Lords, 


hold consent 




and dis- 




spiritual 


to measures 




cuss, re- 




and tempo- 


of a, b, and 




ject or 




ral ; sitting 
for life or 


c (the govern- 
ment), which 




pass, 
bills ; su- 




a term of 
years ; 
seats, here- 
ditary. 


they thor- 
oughly dis- 
cuss and 
freely criti- 




preme 
court of 
appeals. 




given by 


cise. 








the mon- 










arch or 










the vole 










of nobles. 










or by vir- 
tue of ec- 










clesiasti- 










cal office. 











494 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Parts of the 
State in 


War. 


Finance. 


Law. 


Administration, 


dh. House of 


Same as 


Serves un- 


Proposes 


Criticises. 


Commons; 


above. 


paid ; con- 


and dis- 




British 




sents to or 


cusses, re- 




citizens 




rejects 


jects or 




elected 




financial de- 


passes, 




from any 




mands and 


bills ; 




class of 




proposals 


court of 




people by 




of cabinet. 


judgment 




the popu- 






for min- 




lar suffrage 






isters and 




of e. 






high 
officials. 




e. Citizens; 


Enter the 


Pay taxes to 


Are equal- 


Elect members of 


all born or 


army and 


support the 


ly judged 


the House of Com- 


naturalized 


navy as paid 


govern- 


by same 


mons ; if they ex- 


men living 


officers. 


ment. 


laws. 


press disapproval 


in Great 


soldiers, 






of the course of 


Britain and 


and sailors. 






the existing par- 


Ireland, of 








liament or premier, 


competent 








the monarch dis- 


age and 








solves Parliament 


mind, un- 








and allows public 


convicted 








opinion to express 


of crimi- 








itself in a new 


nal offen- 








election; enter the 


ces or of 








civil service on 


bribery, 








competitive exami- 


and having 








nation. 


some prop- 










erty 










interest. 











MODEKN EUROPE. 



495 



h. Constitution of France. (Dating from 1876, and formed by 
a National Assembly elected in 1871, directly after the close 
of the Franco-Prussian war.) 



Parts of the 
State in 


War. 


Finance. 


Law. 


Administration. 


a. President; 


Declares 


Paid for his 


Proclaims 


Executive of the 


chosen 


war, sub- 


service to 


the laws 


State; names the 


from any 


ject to c 


the State. 


passed 


cabinet, dissolves 


class of 


and d. 




by c and 


c and d, and con- 


citizens for 






d; pro- 


vokes special ses- 


seven years 






poses 


sions ; appoints to 


by c and d. 






laws 
which c 
and d dis- 
cuss, crit- 
icise, re- 
ject, or 
accept ; 
can de- 
mand 
the re- 
consider- 
ation of 
a bill ; 
grants 
pardon 
to con- 
victed 
crimi- 
nals. 


civil and military 
office ; presides at 
national solemni- 
ties ; receives and 
appoints foreign 
ambassadors ; 
makes treaties 
with foreign pow- 
ers, subject to c 
and d. 


h. Cabinet of 


Advises and 


Together 


Advises 


Countersigns the acts 


ministers, 


and con- 


with a, lay 


and 


of the president; 


secretaries 


sults. 


the finan- 


consults. 


sub-executives in 


of war, 




cial needs 




the various parts 


State, etc., 




of the gov- 




of the State. 


similar to 




ernment 






British 




before d. 






cabinet. 











496 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Parts of the 
State in 


War. 


Finance. 


Law. 


Administration. 


c.i Senate, 


Discusses, 


Paid for ser- 


Proposes, 


Discusses, criticises 


chosen for 


approves. 


vices to the 


discusses, 


adopts, or rejects 


a term of 


or disap- 


State. 


and pass- 


measures offered 


years from 


proves. 




es bills; 


by a in regard tc 


citizens of 






must re- 


foreign affairs. 


France and 






ceive 




the colo- 






financial 




nies, partly 






measures. 




by electo- 






such as 




ral colleges 






taxes, 




composed 






from d; 




of officials 






judges in 




and other 






case of 




men locally 






necessity 




eminent in 






(high 




France and 






treason) 




the 






a, minis- 




colonies, 






ters of 




partly by 






State, 




d and c 






and 




itself. 






others. 




i.i Chamber 


Approves or 


Paid for ser- 


Proposes, 


Same as e 


of Depu- 


disap- 


vices to the 


discusses, 




ties, chosen 


proves. 


State; 


and 




for a term 




passes 


passes 




of years, 




all bills re- 


bills; can 




from 




garding 


call to 




France and 




taxes and 


account 




her colo- 




expendi- 


a and the 




nies by 




ture. 


minis- 




universal 






ters of 




suffrage 






State. 




of citizens 











1 b and c in joint session form the National Assemblij, and meet in this 
body for the revision of the constitution and the nomination of the 
president. 



MODERN EUKOPE. 



497 



Parts of the 
State in 


War. 


Finance. 


Law. 


Administration. 


e. Citizens ; 


Form the 


Support by 


Are equal- 


Elect deputies and 


all born or 


army and 


their taxes 


ly judged 


manage local 


adopted 


navy as 


the govern- 


by the 


affairs. 


French- 


paid volun- 


ment. 


same 




men, living 


teers or 




laws. 




in France 


conscripts. 








or her colo- 










nies, of 










proper age 










and sound 










mind, un- 










convicted 










of crime. 











• c. Constitution of German Emjnre^ dating from 1871 (at the 
P close of the P^ranco-Prussiaii war) . 

The empire is composed of German states of various ranks, 
each having its special constitution, — as the duchy of Brunswick, 
the republics of Bremen, Lubeck, and Hamburg, the consti- 
tutional kingdoms of Prussia and Bavaria. Each state man- 
ages its own affairs according to its own constitution, while the 
business common to all, as war, colonization, general trade 
and commerce, common railways, steamboats, and other means 
of communication, is attended to b}^ the empire, whose organi- 
zation is as follows : — 



Parts of the Empire 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


a. Emperor, 
hereditary 
monarch 
of Prussia. 


Declares war, 
subject to d, 
and concludes 
peace ; com- 
mander of the 


Publislies laws 
of the empire. 


General executive ; 
convokes, opens, 
dissolves d and 
e, which must be 
convoked annual- 



498 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Pai-ts of the Empire 
in 


War. 


Laiv. 


Administration. 




troops of the 




\y ; receives and 




empire. 




appoints foreign 
envoys, concludes 


«r 






alliances with 
foreign states, 
subject to d and 
e; appoints men 
to the military 
and naval service 
of the empire ; 
names the 
chancellor. 


b. Chancellor of 




Proposes bills to 


Presides over and 


the empire. 




e, after consul- 


directs the delib- 






tation with a. 


erations of d ; 
must counter- 
sign all measures 
of a, and be 
responsible for 
them. 


d. Federal Coun- 


Approves or dis- 


Discusses and 


Can dissolve e, 


cil (Bundcs- 


approves of 


passes on bills 


with consent of 


rath); composed 


declaration of 


offered by e ; 


a; holds states 


of about sixty 


war. 


proposes meas- 


responsible for 


eminent offi- 




ures ; discusses 


their mutual and 


cials, chosen 




constitutional 


federal duties ; 


by and repre- 




measures; 


consent neces- 


sentative of 




court of appeal 


sary to conclu- 


the various 




in case of dif- 


sion of foreign 


German states 




ficulties be- 


alliances relating 


(seventeen 




tween states. 


to general 


are from 






interests. 


Prussia.) 








e. Imperial par- 


. 


Proposes and 


Consent necessary 


liament [Reichs- 




discusses bills, 


to give validity 


tag), composed 




which must be 


to treaties of 


of about four 




submitted to 


alliance affecting 



MODERN EUROPE. 



499 



Parts of the Empire 
in 


War. 


Law. 


Administration. 


hundred Ger- 




and accepted 


general German 


man citizens 




by a and d 


interests. 


chosen by/; 




before they can 




about two hun- 




become laws of 




dred and thirty 




the empire. 




six members 








are from 








Prussia. 








/. Citizens; all 


Serve in the 


Judged and gov- 


Criticise. 


Germans living 


army for a 


erned equally 




in the German 


term of years, 


by laws of the 




empire, of suit- 


and always 


empire. 




able age, and 


liable to mili- 






unconvicted 


tary service in 






of crime. 


case of war. 







Note. — Since the government of Germany is so highly localized by 
states, each state bears the expense of and raises taxes for its own gov- 
ernment. For the empire there is no regular system of taxation, and its 
expenses are met by the revenues from excise and customs-duties, and 
from the postal and telegraph services. 



Note. — In all these constitutions, the j)roceeclings of 
the government and of the legislative bodies are as public 
as it is thought the good of the State will allow. The 
proceedings of the lower chamber are generally published 
in the newspapers of the day. In all of these constitu- 
tions, again, elections are decided and bills are carried 
by the votes of the majority. 

STUDY ON I. 

a. How is the ]3ower of the monarch checked ? That of the premier ? 
Of the House of Commons? What parts of this constitution seem 
unnecessary? What is the historic origin of each part? Which part 
is distinctively modern ? What parts are representative? How does 
the fact that the members of the House of Commons are unpaid 



500 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

affect their representative value ? Their independence ? Where does 
responsibility rest in this constitution ? 

h. Compare the power of the British monarch and the French presi- 
dent. What necessary check to the power of the latter which thej 
former does not feel ? How does the relation of colonists to the home 
government differ in England and France? Which strikes you as 
the wiser arrangement, and why? Which has the most thoroughly 
representative government, England or France, and why ? Supposing] 
you knew nothing of the French Revolution, but knew the organiza- 
tions of France under the " Old Regime " and at present, what great] 
political change would you mark ? What great social change ? What 
great religious change ? 

c. What is the leading state of the German empire? What check is] 
felt by each part of the constitution ? To what in the English con-! 
stitution does each part of c correspond? Each part of 6? What 
types are evidently copied by h and c ? 

What general difference between the upper and lower Houses ii 
these constitutions ? What is the bond of union in the nineteenth- 
century state ? By what arrangement does it secure itself against 
domestic tyranny ? Against foreign invasion ? What equality exists 
within it? What does the modern state owe to the feudal state' 
What has it in common with the Athenian and Roman republics ' 
What difference between its popular assemblies and the assemblies oi 
mediaeval estates? The popular assemblies of antiquity? Whal 
serves the purpose of the old market-place? What modern inventions 
enable the large state to be governed as equally and as much by th( 
whole people as the little "city-state" of antiquity? In the moderi 
state by what means must power be gained or held ? How does the 
army of the modern state differ from that of antiquity? Of the 
middle ages? 

STUDY ON OTHER ORGANIZATIONS OF OUR CENTURY. 

Looking about you here in America, what new facts of religious 
organization do you see? Make a list of all the organizations — social, 
industrial, commercial, educational — that you can think of or find 
out about which are different from those you have seen in your studies 
of previous history. For whose benefit are these organizations? 
AVhat do they show the nineteenth century to be caring for ? Do any 
of them correspond with any organizations you have met before? 
What relation has each of these organizations to the State ? 



TO 
1848. 



MODERN EUROPE. 501 

2. General Siiinmary of Leading Events of the Century, 

a. International. 

Iiiteriuitioiml congresses of European kings and j — ^^^~| 
royal ministers called to consider how to su[)[)ress 
or manage revolutionary movements in Naples, 
Spain, Gei'many, and Piedmont, which seem to imitate 
the beginning of the French Revolution; as a result of 
these conferences, the Italian uprisings are put down by 
force of Austrian arms, and the absolute rule of the vari- 
ous princes is restored; French armies are sent into Spain, 
where they liberate the imprisoned king and restore him 
to power, securing the restoration by numerous execu- 
tions ; the teaching in the German universities is super- 
vised, lest the professors inspire the students with princi- 
ples of political liberty. 

The Greeks revolt against Turkey, who calls Egypt to 
her aid; its Pasha invades and ravages Greece ; England, 
Russia, and France interfere in her behalf, and drive the 
Turks from the peninsula ; Turkey, hard pressed by Euro- 
pean powers, notably by Russia, at length consents, by the 
treaty of Adrianople, that Greece shall become an inde- 
pendent European power ; England, France, and Russia 
select a Bavarian prince for her king, whom the Greeks 
accept as their constitutional monarch. 

War breaks out in the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
created by the Congress of Vienna, between the Dutch 
Protestants of Holland and the Belgian French-speaking 
Catholics of the old Austrian Netherlands. At a London 
conference, the Great Powers consent to the separation of 
Holland and Belgium, allowing the latter country to 
become an independent state, under the rule of a constitu- 
tional king: thus arises the kingdom of Belgium, 1880. — 
NcAv Italian uprisings in favor of independence and con- 
stitutional government are suppressed by Austrian arms. 



602 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

— The viceroy of Egypt makes war on the Turkish sultan, 
but is forced by the European powers to make peace. 

The Italians, under the leadership of the king 
of Sardinia, attempt to drive the Austrians out 
of Northern Italy ; they are defeated at Novara, 



1848 

TO 

1853. 



and the Austrians more firmly fixed in power than before. 
— The Hungarians (Magyars), under the lead of Kossuth, 
revolt against Austria in behalf of a local Hungarian gov- 
ernment and a restoration of the old Hungarian constitu- 
tion. The Russian agrees to help the Austrian empire, 
and by her aid the Hungarian uprising is entirely sup- 
pressed, its leaders executed or imprisoned, and the con- 
stitution of Hungary is declared abolished. — The duchies 
of Schleswig-Holstein, to the south of Denmark, are 
proclaimed annexed to Denmark by the Danish king. 
The people of the duchies revolt, and are aided at first by 
the Germans and Prussians; afterward, they fight alone. 
The German confederacy at last enforces peace, and Hol- 
stein is occupied by Austrian troops, who deliver the 
duchy to the Danes on condition that its ''rights shall be 
respected." In 1852, the Treaty of London, signed by the 
five Great Powers (Pentarchy) and Sweden, appoints a 
single king for Denmark and the duchies, without con- 
sulting the estates of the latter. 

War of Russia against Turkey because the lat- 
ter refuses the former a protectorate over all Chris- 
tians of the Greek Church in tlie Turkish empire. 



1853 

TO 

1856. 



England, France, Sardinia, ally themselves with Turkey, 
and the Crimean War opens, — which may be described 
as a war of Western Europe aganist Russia. Sebastopol, 
in the Crimea, is the objective point of attack, in order to 
ruin the naval power of Russia in the Black Sea. The war 
ends with the Peace of Paris, in which Turkey agrees to 
make her Christian subjects equal to the Mohnmmedans 



MODERN EUKOPE. 508 

ill their relations with the State, while Russia foregoes her 
demand to become their protector. Russia promises not 
to establish arsenals on the Black Sea nor to keep more 
ships there than the Turkish Porte. The following rules 
of naval warfare are at this time agreed upon by tlie Euro- 
pean powers : Privateering is and remains abolished ; 
neutral ships and neutral goods are not liable to capture; 
blockades, to be binding, must be effective. 

France and England join in an ex[)edition 
against China, on account of the latter country's 
violation of the treaty with England. They 



185G 

TO 

1870. 



occupy Canton, march upon Pekin, and force the Chinese 
to agree to admit traders and missionaries into China, 
and allow European embassies to reside at Pekin. 

Sardinia, now allied with France, once more attempts to 
rid Northern Italy of the Austrian ; wins the battles of 
Magenta and Solferino and signs the Peace of Villafranca, 
in which Austria gives Lombardy to Sardinia (1859). 

Austria and Prussia make war on Denmark because her 
king lias incorporated Schleswig with Denmark; the war 
ends by a treaty in which the king of Denmark renounces 
all his rights to Schleswig-Holstein in favor of the empe- 
ror of Austria and the king of Prussia ; Austria occupies 
and governs Schleswig, and Prussia, Holstein. 

Disputes between Austria and Prussia over the manage- 
ment of Schleswig-Holstein lead to the Austro-Prussian 
war of 1866, in which Prussia receives the alliance of 
Italy and the smaller states of North Germany, and Aus- 
tria is aided by the stronger German states. The battle 
of Sadowa decides the conflict, and by the terms of the 
peace Austria consents to tlie organization of a new 
German confederation, from which she shall be excluded; 
Schleswig-Holstein is resigned to Prussia, who also gains 
other German territory nearly 30,000 square miles in 



604 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

extent ; the Austrians yield their claims on Venice, which 
joins itself to the new kingdom of Italy. 

War threatens between France and Prussia on account 
of claims to frontier territory made by Napoleon III. A 
conference is called at London which recognizes Italy as 
one of the Great Powers, and for the present reconciles 
Prussia and France. 

Franco-Prussian War. — A prince of Hohen- 
zollern is elected to the Spanish throne ; his 
withdrawal is demanded by France. After he 



1870 

TO 

1871. 



voluntarily resigns his claims, the French emperor 
demands of the Prussian king a promise " that he will 
never again allow the candidacy of the prince for the 
Spanish crown." The king will not promise, and the 
manner of his refusal displeases the emperor, who regards 
it as an insult, and declares war of France against Prussia. 
The French, hard pressed by Prussia, withdraw their 
troops from Rome, which declares itself annexed to the 
kingdom of Italy, wliose capital it becomes. The French 
are badly beaten at Sedan ; the German armies march on 
Paris, besiege it, and compel a peace. By its terms (Con- 
vention of Versailles), France cedes Elsass (Alsace) and 
German Lorraine to Germany. Germany is now declared 
an empire under the leadership of Prussia, whose king 
takes the title of German Emperor. 

The period is marked by a strnggle of Church 
and State in Prussia, Switzerland, Italy, in regard 
to the functions of each in regard to education. 



P 1871 

I TO 

1876. 



marriage, and the appointment of clerg}^ In Italy, the 
monasteries are dissolved and their property appropri- 
ated by the State ; in Switzerland, a national Catholic 
Church is formed, whose clergy are elected by the people ; 
in Germany, marriages and the registration of births and 
deaths are made a part of the business of the State. In 



MODERK EUEOPE. 



505 



Spain, civil Avar between republicans and two claimants 
of the Spanish throne, ends in the restoration of a con- 
stitutionjil monarchy. 

The Christian subjects of the Turkish Porte 
revolt against him in behalf of religious tolera- 
tion and just taxation. The revolt is suppressed 
with great violence and cruelty ; Russia once more de- 
clares herself protector of the Greek Christians, and 
threatens war. The Powers hold a conference at Con- 
stantinople, in which they unsuccessfully attempt to com- 



1870 

TO 
1880. 




TURKISH DOMINION in EUROPE before and afferTRLATY of BLR LIN > 

V///////////yA = Turkish dominion. 



pose the existing difficulties. The Porte being unwilling 
to submit to their dictation, they leave Constantinople, 
and Russia makes war on Turkey {T\irco-Rus8ian war, 
1877-78). The war ends in the Peace of San Stefano, 
which makes Servia and Montenegro independent, and 
enlai'ges their boundaries at Turkey's expense ; Roumania 
becomes independent, while Bulgaria remains tributary to 
the Porte, but with a Christian prince and independent 
administration and troops ; the Porte promises reform 



506 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

within his European lands, and agrees to give Russia large 
parts of Armenia and some new European territory. 
England and Austria, being dissatisfied with this treaty, 
threaten to make war on Russia; Germany mediates for 
peace, and tlie Congress of Berlin is called, under the 
presidency of Prince Bismarck, prime minister of Prussia ; 
the Peace of San Stefano is somewhat modified in favor of 
Turkey ; Southern Bulgaria is restored to the immediate 
rule of the sultan, under the name of East-Ronmelia ; 
Russian troops are to leave the Christian provinces within 
a year ; Turkey is advised to cede a part of Epirus and 
Thessaly to Greece ; in all the states of the Turkish penin- 
sula political equality is to exist for men of all creeds; 
Austria is allowed military occupation and administra- 
tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Porte delays to 
deliver over the promised territories, and is threatened into 
obedience by the presence of a squadron sent by all the 
Great Powers. A conference of their ambassadors, mean- 
while, meeting at Constantinople, persuades the sultan to 
yield to Greece territories on her northern frontier. 

Russia threatening Germany by an alliance with France, 
Bismarck negotiates a defensive alliance of Prussia and 
Austria. 

STUDY ON 2, a. 

What check is placed upon the aggressive tendencies of any great 
power of Europe ? What protection have the smaller states of Europe 
against such a fate as Poland suffered? What are the political units 
of Europe? What bonds of unity exist within these units? What 
natural reasons for war between the two parts of the kingdom of the 
Netherlands ? What new states have been formed within our cen- 
tury? At whose expense? How far are these true political units of 
the kind named above? What true political units exist still unre- 
cognized? What tendency is shown in the political congresses, con- 
ferences, and treaties of this time ? What do the wars of our century 
show to be the leading desires of the European peoples and govern- 
ments? What great good has been accomplished by these warsi 



1815 

TO 



MODERN EUROPE. 507 

What injustice appears in some of them? What state is Europe 
especially watchful of? Which of the wars of tliis century do you 
regard as notably important? Why? Why should Turkey be called 
the " sick man " ? 

b. France. 

Lewis XVIII. proclaims a liberal constitution, 
but presently laws are passed that restrict the 
freedom of the press and of elections. Parties L^^ 
arise, in favor of the " Old Regime," in favor of consti- 
tutional monarchy, in favor of the Bonapartes, in favor 
of a re[)ublic. Under his successor, Charles X., the na- 
tional guard is disbanded. — Algeria is conquered and 
occupied by the French (1830). — New elections take 
place, which return a liberal majority to the parliamentary 
chambers; the government declares the elections illegal, 
restricts the right of suffrage to rich land-owners, pro- 
hibits the publication of newspapers and pamphlets with- 
out the permission of the king. The Parisians revolt, and 
Thiers protests; a national guard is again formed, under 
Lafayette. Charles X. abdicates and Louis Philippe, of 
the younger line of the House of Bourbon (Orleans), 
comes to the throne ; he proclaims liberal measures and 
better constitutional government. His life is attempted 
by means of an "infernal machine," and laws are once 
more passed restricting the liberty of the press. 

Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Bonaparte, tries to get 
iimself proclaimed as emperor; still further development 
)f parties; demands for reforms in elections and in the 
3ivil service rejected by the government (1848). Revolu- 
tion, largely conducted by members of secret socialistic ^ 
societies. Louis Philippe abdicates, and a republic is 

^ In general, the aims of socialism are to organize society in tlie inter- 
ests of labor ratlier than capital : and to substitute for the principle of 
competition in industry some form of social and cooperative labor. 



508 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

proclaimed. Louis Blanc, a leading socialist, agitates for 
the organization of labor, and public workshops are estab- 
lished at the expense of the State, although not in accord- 
ance with the designs of Blanc ; they are closed, and an 
insurrection of laborers ensues, which is suppressed by 
the government troops and the national guard. Louis 
Napoleon is elected president of the republic. 

Louis Napoleon, by a " stroke of state " (^coup 
tVetat of Dec. 2, 1851), causes the leaders of the 
Republican and Orleanist parties to be arrested 



1848 

TO 

1870. 



and imprisoned, dissolves the national assembly, annuls 
the constitution, crushes the rising revolt of Paris, and 
summons the whole people to an election. They elect 
Louis Napoleon president of the republic for ten years. 
He banishes his most important political enemies, establishes 
a constitution like that of the First Empire, and restricts 
the liberty of the press ; in the following year he is made 
Napoleon III., Emperor of the Freiich, by decree of the 
senate, confirmed by vote of the whole people {plebiscite). 
During the siege of Paris the socialistic party 
in Paris gain the upper hand, and hold rule for a 
short time under the title of the Paris Commune. 



1870 

TO 

1871. 



They are aided by socialists from all nations. The na- 
tional troops attack and conquer them ; 40,000 or 50,000 
socialists are arrested, and their leaders are shot or trans- 
ported. Meanwhile, after the defeats of Sedan and the 
fall of Paris into the hands of the Prussians, France is 
j)roclaimed for the third time a republic, with Thiers for 
its first president. 

Owing to a hostile combination of the various 
monarchical parties, Thiers is forced to resign, 
and MacMahon is chosen president by the National 



1871 

TO 

1880. 



Assembly. The long discussions over the constitution end 
in 1875, with the form given on p. 495. The president, 



MODERN EUROPE. 509 

MacMahoii, unable to work effectively and harmoniously 
with the legislative chambers, resigns, and (irevy takes 
his place. Education is taken entirely out of the hands 
of the priests. 

c. Grreat Britain, 

During the period of the French Revolution England 
had granted representative institutions to Canada ; an 
agitation had arisen in Ireland for entire separation from 
England, and a national government. This agitation was 
put down by force of arms and by " cruel severities," and 
the act of union was passed, by which the government of 
Ireland and England was combined under a single imperial 
parliament, while the Irish and English Churches were 
united into one "Protestant Episcopal Church." In 1807 
the slave-trade had been abolished in the British domin- 
ions. The sudden and extensive introduction of machinery 
into many important manufactures had thrown many hand- 
workers out of employment, and produced great misery in 
the manufacturing districts. This misery led to riot, ma- 
chine-breaking QLuddites)^ and demands for legal protec- 
tion for the rights of laborers ; the newspaper called the 
" Weekly Political Register " did much to foment discon- 
tent, and from every side came demands for social and 
political reforms. 

Holland having joined France in war against England 
(1795), England seized the colonial possessions of the 
latter, notably the Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon, which, 
from this time forward, British colonists began to settle 
and rule. Australia Avas also taken possession of, the first 
colonists being British convicts. 

The British compel the dey of Algiers to abol- 
ish Christian slavery. — The sufferings of the la- 
boring classes cause violent agitations, culminating 



1815 

TO 
1848. 



510 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

in giant meetings at Manchester, demanding parliamentary 
reform. Tliese meetings are broken up by government 
troops; the '•^habeas corpus^^ is temporarily suspended, and 
acts are passed in parliament, designed for the suppression 
of publications and assemblies calculated to disturb the 
peace. From this time dates the rapid development of 
Conservative and Liberal parties in English politics. 

Lord John Russell moves the repeal of the corporation 
and test acts, thus admitting Protestant dissenters to pub- 
lic office. This is soon followed by the Catholic relief act, 
v^hich opens government positions to Catholics also. Un- 
der William IV. (1830-1837), Lord John Russell brings 
forward a reform bill, by which the right of suffrage is 
much more widely and more justly given ; rejected by 
parliament, parliament is dissolved ; brought forward in 
the next parliament, it is passed by the Commons, rejected 
by the Lords ; riots ensue throughout England. In 1832 
it is finally passed, and thus the large manufacturing towns 
more nearly receive a due share of political power. In 
the same year a bill passes parliament abolishing slavery 
throughout the British dominion, and giving a recompense 
of $100,000,000 to the slave-owners, 

Acquisition of new territory and new dominion in India; 
in some cases the English become, by request, the guar- 
dians or protectors of Hindoo chiefs or monarchs. Widow- 
burning is abolished, and the order of Thugs^ or hereditary 
assassins, suppressed. 

Accession of Victoria. — The working people of 
Birmingham and vicinity (^Chartists') meet and 



1837. 



draw up a people's charter, which asks for annual parlia- 
ments, universal manhood suffrage, vote by ballot in- 
stead of b}^ acclamation, abolition of any property qualifica- 
tion for seats in parliament, and the payment of members. 
Parliament rejects their demands ; riots follow, which are 



r 



MODEliN EUROPE. 511 

put doAvn. — At Manchester John Bright and Richard 
Cobden form an Anti-Coni-Law League in favor of free 
trade. Owing to this agitation the Corn-Laws ^ are re- 
pealed, and many other duties are either abolished or 
lessened (184G). — Famine in Ireland and commercial dis- 
tress in England. — Continued difficulties with the laboi-- 
ing classes, many of whom are thrown out of work, while 
the rest work at starvation prices on account of the in- 
troduction of machinery. Legislation to fix wages and 
suppress discontent proves inefficient. — In the East the 
British try to force a ruler on Afghanistan, subservient to 
their interests. The Afghans revolt and expel the British, 
who soon return Avith strong military forces and replace 
their own appointee. The Chinese emperor forbids the 
opium-trade, and the Chinese destroy great quantities of 
opium in the hands of the British; the latter continue 
the trade and claim redress, whereupon the Chinese make 
war upon them, but are in the end forced to meet their 
demands {Opium luar'). 

Rebellion in Ireland and renewed chartist agita- 
tion in England ; both suppressed. 

The navigation laws are repealed in favor of 
free trade. Property qualification of members of 
parliament removed, and Jews admitted to seats ; 



1848. 



1848 

TO 
1868. 



the British dominion in India constantly extends, and 
the queen gains the title of sovereign of India (1858). — 

^ In general, the term applied to laws intended to protect grain- 
growers from foreign competition by forbidding importation of wheat 
without heavy duties, which shall raise its price to that demanded by 
native land-owners. The Corn-Laws here referred to, however, were 
especially notorious and grievous, since a succession of bad harvests and 
the Napoleonic wars had raised the price of English wheat to absolutely 
famine prices. In order to profit by these circumstances as long as possi- 
ble, the Corn-Laws of 1815 were passed in order to force a continuation 
of tlie high prices of corn. 



512 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The suffrage is greatly extended. — Submarine cables 
unite England with France and America. — Canada, Nova 
Scotia, and New Brunswick are formed into the Dominion 
of Canada, each province managing its own local affairs ; 
representative governments are formed for Australia and 
other Pacific colonial possessions. 

Liberal elections in Great Britain, resulting in 
placing Gladstone, the Liberal leader, at the head 
of affairs ; the Irish Church is disestablished, thus 



1868 

TO 
1880. 



freeing Catholic Ireland from the injustice of supporting 
a Protestant Church. — The Suez Canal is opened. — The 
Irish land act is passed (1870), an act which endeavors to 
correct some of the unjust and oppressive conditions of 
the tenants of Irish landlords, compensate them for im- 
provements and protect them from sudden and unreasonable 
eviction. Education is made compulsory, and provided for 
b}^ the State ; voting by ballot is introduced. 

Disraeli, prime minister ; shares in the Suez Canal are 
bought from the khedive of Egypt; the queen receives 
the title of Empress of India. — Constant agitation in 
Ireland for juster arrangements in the management of 
land, the relations of land-owners and tenants, and above 
all, for independence from English control in local govern- 
ment. The most notable leader in these agitations is 
Parnell. In 1880, under Gladstone, an Irish land act is 
passed, which provides for free sale, fair rents, fixed ten- 
ure (the three -^'s), and establishes a special court for 
trying differences between landlords and tenants. 

Colonial difficulties with frontier tribes : in Africa, with 
Zulus and Ashantees ; in India, with Afghans. 

d. Notable Events and Changes in other Countries. 

The Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South America 
become independent states of the constitutional, and very 



MODEliN EUROPE. 513 

generally of the republican, type. — Mexico revolts against 
Spanish rule, and becomes a republic (1823). — Tlie Poles 
revolt against the Kussians in favor of national independ- 
ence ; they are subdued by force of arms, and deprived of 
their former constitution. — In Russia serfdom is abolished 
by an imperial decree (1858-1808); — a strong Nihilist 
party is formed opposing the whole Russian system ; having 
no legishitive bodies and no free press by which to urge re- 
form, modify the absolutism of the czars, and correct 
the abuses of tlie State, they diffuse as widely as possible, 
through secret organizations and publications, extreme 
revolutionary ideas of society and politics. — Austria, after 
her defeat at Sadowa, reorganizes her government in ac- 
cordance with constitutional principles, becomes reconciled 
with Hungary, and restores her constitution. — Civil wars 
in Spain between various parties and rival claimants to 
the throne end in the establishment of a constitutional 
monarchy. — In the United States, long agitations against 
slavery end in the Civil War and the Emancipation Proc- 
lamation of Abraham Lincoln, which gives freedom to the 
negroes without compensation to their masters. 

STUDY ON 2, b-d. 

What point in the remark that the kings of the Restoration (Bour- 
bons) " had learned nothing and had forgotten nothing "? From the 
events and measures of the period in France, what would seem to be 
regarded as the most formidable of modern political forces ? Why 
should it be so regarded ? Plow can you account for the popularity 
of Louis Napoleon? What new revolution threatens France? What 
principle seems to have been thoroughly established by the first 
French Revolution ? 

What political tendency is growing in England during this whole 
century ? What common measures are taken in both countries to 
suppress agitation ? Compare the demands of the " Chartists " with 
the various acts of parliament from 1848 onward ; how far have they 
been answered? What acts of injustice in the colonial policy of 



514 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



England ? What beneficial measures lias she initiated ? What long- 
standing religious injustices are righted in this century ? Whom did 
the corn-laws benefit, and how ? Whom injure ? Explain how it was 
that the introduction of machinery caused great misery among the arti- 
san classes. What social and what political trouble appears in Ireland ? 
What is the importance of the Suez Canal to England ? What great 
social revolution has taken place in this century, both in England and 
the United States? With what difference? In what other country 
has a similar revolution occurred? AVhat other facts do you find in 
d similar to facts and tendencies noticed in h and c? Compare Hun- 
gary and Ireland. What acts of civilized countries in this century 
would you name unchristian ? 

STUDY ON MAP, PAGES 516, 517. 

What countries in Europe have political l)oundaries corresponding 
with their natural boundaries? Within these natural boundaries, 
what bonds of union exist among the people? Between what coun- 
tries will you expect to find ill-feeling on account of the question of 
boundaries? What natural geographical units are not yet political 
units? What events or agitations correspond to this fact? Judging 
from the map alone, what part of Europe would you expect to find 
most easily involved in war? 

STUDY ON MAP, PAGES 520, 521. 
What relation between Europe and the rest of the world ? What 
great movement of population is evidently taking place ? What must 
result to the world from this movement in point of material civiliza- 
tion ? In point of cosmopolitanism ? Of community of institutions 
and thought ? How does this movement correspond to the Greek, 
Macedonian, and Roman movements of population? How does it 
differ? AVhat countries are likely to crowd each other in this move- 
inent? AVhat effect will this have on the international relations of 
Europe ? Compare the civilized area shown by this map with that 
seen in map on p. 2. Compare the civilizations. 



1815 

TO 
1848. 



SpecUil Study on the Det^elo2)nient of the Gerntan 
Empire, 1815-1880. 

At the Congress of Vienna, Stein demands that 
constitutional governments be established in the 
states of the new German Confederation. This 



MODEKN EUKOPE. 515 

proposition is overruled by the influence of the Austrian 
minister, Metternich, and each prince is left free to rule 
as he pleases, with or without a constitution. Metternich's 
view of the matter appears in the following extract from 
his political " Confession of Faith " : — 

' ' Kings have to calculate the chances of their very existence 
in the immediate future ; passions are let loose and league to- 
gether to overthrow . . . religion, public morality, laws, customs, 
rights, and duties. . . . 

" Union between the monarchs is the basis of the policy 
which must now be followed to save society' from utter 
ruin. . . . 

" We are certainly not alone in questioning if society can 
exist with the liberty of the press, a scourge unknown to the 
world before the latter half of the seventeenth century, and 
restrained until the end of the eighteenth, with scarcely any 
exception but England. . . . 

'' The first principle to be followed bj^ monarchs . . . should 
be that of maintaining the stability of pohtical institutions 
against the disorganized excitement which has taken possession 
of men's minds ; . . . and respect for laws actually in force 
against a desire for their destruction. . . . 

" The first need of societ}'' is to be maintained by strong 
authority, and not to govern itself. . . . The first and greatest 
concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability 
of its laws, . . . never their change." 

The action of the Congress of Vienna rouses great in- 
dignation throughout the German universities. Student- 
societies and gymnastic-unions are everywhere formed, 
with German unity and liberty for their real aim. In 
1817 occurs the three-hundredth anniversary of the nailing 
of Luther's theses to the church-door of Wittenberg. The 
students hold a commemoration festival on the Wartburg, 
when, with speeches and huzzas, they burn in a roaring 



518 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

bonfire certain writings favoring absolutism, and form 
upon the spot a new association for the advancement of 
liberty and unity. 

This outburst is deemed worthy of serious attention on 
the part of the Great Powers of Europe, who regard the 
universities with suspicion ; their feeling is thus expressed 
by a writer of the time: "What are the Universities? 
Gothic remains of the Middle Ages, irreconcilable with 
the institutions and need of our own century. They 
confuse our youth ; they mislead public opinion. . . . 

" They are archives of all the errors of centuries ; they 
beget anew and perpetuate the false theories of the past." 
Another writer of the time says : " Ignorant professors 
tell the young student that it is his duty to reform his 
country." 

It follows that, in 1819, a Congress of German minis- 
ters, under the control of Metternich, issues the following 
law : " A censor appointed by government shall reside at 
every university to control the student societies there, to 
watch the instruction given, and to dismiss immediately 
any professor whose teaching may be injurious to the gov- 
ernment. No book of less than twenty pages shall be 
published without the consent of the governments ; a royal 
commission shall sit at Mayence to examine and punish 
any person who may be suspected of having used seditious 
language against the government." 

In carrying out these decrees, "Houses are entered 
everywhere ; private correspondence is examined. When 
letters are discovered expressing dismay at the new tyr- 
anny, the writers are instantly and often severely pun- 
ished. To have been heard singing a patriotic song, to 
have been seen wearing the old German colors, are crimes 
that can be punished with many months' imprisonment." 

In Austria, however, the school-children are taught 



MODERN EUllOPE. 519 

"to honor the sovereign as they would their father and 
mother, and to remember that he has absolute power over 
their bodies and over all their goods." 

After the news of revolutions in favor of constitutional 
liberty and national independence in Spain, Greece, and 
Italy, three new German societies are formed to agitate for 
similar ends, — the Teutonia^ Germania, and Arminia ; 
the latter is named after Arminius or Hermann, the old 
defender of Germany against the Romans. Of these, the 
Ger7nania consists of the followers of Victor Hugo and of 
Heine, and spreads the doctrine, " Forget nationality ; 
think only of humanity ; princes only have diverse inter- 
ests ; the people of all countries are friends." Continual 
agitation, met by the continual opposition of princes, in- 
stigated, and to some extent forced, by Metternich. In 
some of the states, the princes try palliative, in others, 
repressive measures. 

During this period occurs at Hambach the festival of 
the German May. More than 25,000 people, from all 
classes and from all parts of Germany, are present ; bands 
play the national airs that princes have forbidden ; the 
feasters wear the old German colors of black, red, and 
gold ; and upon a banner are inscribed the words, " Ger- 
many desires ' Unity, Freedom, Equality! ' " But the chief 
speakers at this German May are arrested and convicted ; 
speech and press are more strictly gagged ; even those 
princes who have promised constitutions, " mostly forget," 
as Freeman says, " to give them." 

^Meanwhile, a new king, Frederick William the Fourth, 
has come to the throne of Prussia, and the people hope 
for a change; but he declares: "A sheet of paper shall 
not come between me and my subjects ; paragraphs shall 
not rule us, nor shall they replace our time-honored reli- 
ance on one another," 



I 




R C 



T I 




C E 



A N 



"AUCKLAND 

mAquarrie I. 



.A. 



o c 



N 



'ICTORiA LAND! 



lZ 



100 120 



110 160 



522 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



1848 

TO 

1870. 



With the news of the second French Revolu- 
tion, and the establishment of a new French re- 
public, the agitation in Germany increases; excited 
political meetings are held, and street fights (barricades) 
occur in Berlin and in Vienna. The latter city falls into 
the hands of citizens and students, and Metternich is, for 
the time being, compelled to flee. These disturbances 
result in the calling of a German National Assembly at 
Frankfort, for the purpose of making a constitution for 
Germany. This Assembly discusses a union of the Ger- 
man states, and decides upon a central government with 
two representative bodies, one of which is to be elected by 
universal suffrage. 

Two parties now arise in Germany, one wishing to re- 
tain, the other to exclude, Austria from the Confederation; 
the latter party looks to Prussia as its natural leader. 
The period is full of quarrels and of discontent over the con- 
stitution of Germany as a whole, and over the constitutions 
of separate states. As a result of these long agitations, it 
may be said in general, that nearly all the German states 
gain some form of constitutional government; about half 
of these constitutions are granted between 1818 and 
1848, and the rest between 1848 and 1870. As for the 
long-growing jealousy of Austria and' Prussia, it culmi- 
nates at Sadowa (see p. 503) with the exclusion of Austria 
from the Confederacy and the formation of a North Ger- 
man Confederation, under the leadership of Prussia, with 
Bismarck for its chancellor. This government has two rep- 
resentative chambers, one representing the governments of 
the various states, the other elected by universal suffrage. 
During the progress of the Franco-Prussian - 
war, Lewis, king of Bavaria, sends the following 
circular-letter to the king of Saxony and to the 



1870 

TO 

1871. 



other rulers of the various German states 



MODERN EUROPE, 523 

" Most serene and powerfnl Prince, dear P'riend, Brother, 
and Cousin : — 

"Victoriously led by Prussia's heroic King, the German 
tribes, who for centuries have been united in language, manners, 
science, and art, now celebrate a brotherhood of arms which 
gives a glorious proof of the importance of the power of a 
united Germany. ... I now address myself to the German 
Sovereigns, and especially to your majesty, to propose that you 
should, together with me, urge upon his majesty the King of 
Prussia, that the exercise of the presidential rights be united 
with the title of Emperor." 

The king of Prussia accordingly, on Jan. 17, 1871, thus 
addresses the German armies: — 

"On this day, ever memorable to me and my House, I 
take, with the consent of the German Princes, and the ad 
hesion of all the German people, in addition to my rank 
as King of Prussia, that of German Emperor. Your brav- 
ery and endurance, which I again recognize to the fullest 
extent, have hastened the work of the unification of Germany, 
a result which you have achieved at the sacrifice of so much 
blood. 

" Let it always be remembered that brotherly feeling, brav- 
ery, and obedience, have rendered the army victorious." 

On the next day, at Versailles, in the palace of Lewis 
XIV., the German Empire is solemnly proclaimed with 
the constitution given on p. 497. 

Two great agitations mark this decade for Ger- 
many, the struggle with the Ultramontanists, who 
assert the power of the pope as against that of 
the State, and the struggle with the Socialists. In both 
of these conflicts compromise measures have been adopted 
on the part of Bismarck. 



1871 

TO 
1880. 



524 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



STUDY ON 3. 



What are the two aims of agitation in Germany up to 1870? 
Which of these aims is peculiar to Germany? AVhich is character- 
istic of the century ? What advantages does Metternich see in kings ? 
Why does he call the " liberty of the press " a scourge ? What power 



$AVOY>; 



ITALY 




|^x^y^l = Papal dominion 
1 = Territory under 



foreign dominion or influences^ 
Spanish orAus+rian. 



is closely allied with this in Germany? What power is set to work to 
counteract it in Austria? What oppressions in Germany are peculiar 
to this century? What is the weak point in what Frederick Wil- 
liam IV. says ? What events prove that the internal peace and order 
of one European country are of value to every other ? How far do 
events in Germany prove the use of the agitations and difficulties of 



MODERN EUROPE. 525 

the century? AVhat principle of government do they thoroughly 
recognize ? 

AYhat feelings are shown in the circular letter of Lewis of Bavaria? 
In the address of the Prussian king to the army ? AVhat trouble does 
(lermany experience from 1871-1880, in common with other countries 
of Europe? 

4. Sj^ecial Study oii the Develojyment of the Kingdom 
of Italy. 

a. STUDY ON MAP OF "ITALY IN 1815." 

What part of Italy is under native Italian rule? AVhat historic 
reason is there for the presence of Austrian and Spanish rulers ? For 
the pope as a temporal ruler ? Of these various" rulers, which will 
appeal most to Italian sympathies, and why? 

h. Summary of Leading Italian Events^ 1815-1870 ; (com- 
pare with 2). 
Revolution in Spain ; the Spaniards demand and 
temporarily obtain a written constitution of the 
English type. — The Neapolitans at once revolt 



1820 

TO 
1831. 



and declare their right to the same privileges as the 
Spaniards ; their king yields, and swears to rule by a free 
constitution. An unsuccessful Sicilian revolt for inde- 
pendence follows. The Austrian prime minister, Metter- 
nich, calls a congress of the kings, emperors, and prime 
ministers of Europe, and Austria, Russia, and Prussia com- 
bine to suppress the south Italian rebellions ; this congress 
issues the following manifesto : " The events that have 
recently taken place in Naples have necessarily created a 
sentiment of profound uneasiness in the minds of the Sov- 
ereigns who have charged themselves with the duty of 
watching over the tranquillity of Europe. They have 
recently crushed the Revolution, and yet they now 
find that it is still alive. . . . They have, therefore, 
agreed to hold counsel together, and, if necessary, to 
take up arms in common with the view of putting an 



626 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

end to the disturbances in the kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies. ..." — An Austrian army enters the kingdom of 
the Two Sicilies and restores the absolute royal power; 
" about a thousand persons are condemned to death, pri- 
son, or exile ; " to all this the Neapolitan king voluntarily 
consents. 

Meanwhile "Young Italy," a secret society for 
making Italy free and independent, is growing 
up under the leadership of Mazziiii. 

The Sardinian king grants a new constitution 
to his people ; Sicily and Naples revolt, and a free 



1881 

TO 
1848. 



constitution is again granted by their king. — Northern 
Italy revolts against Austria ; the Sardinian king joins the 
insurgents, and Austria is for the time worsted. The re- 
volts in southern and central Italy increase in fury, and 
the Sicilian king is compelled to grant a new democratic 
constitution; Venice, temporarily free from Austria, is 
proclaimed a republic under the leadership of Manin. — 
The Sardinians fight the Austrians at Novara; are de- 
feated and submit to peace on condition that all shall 
be as before. — Victor Emmanuel becomes king of 
Sardinia. Revolution in Rome against the papal govern- 
ment ends in the establishment of the Roman republic. 
Garibaldi is its general, and Mazzini its most prominent 
leader. 

Insurrection for popular rights breaks forth in Genoa, 
Leghorn, Florence ; France, Spain, and Austria send 
troops into Italy to restore the old order. The French 
enter Rome; Garibaldi and Mazzini escape; Venice is 
retaken, and the" Austrian power re-established in north- 
ern Italy. 

Sardinia, in alliance with France and England, 

gives them effective aid in the Crimean war. 

When the peace of Paris is concluded, Cavour, the 



1854 

TO 
1859. 



MODERN EUROPE. 527 

prime minister of Victor Emmanuel, urges strongly the 
dangers to Italy from Austrian occupation; Napoleon III. 
agrees to help Sardinia in case of a war with .Vustria, and 
Victor Emmanuers daughter is married into the Napoleon 
family. Austrian troops are now concentrated on the Sar- 
dinian frontier, and Sardinia prepares for war; volunteers 
from all Italy join her; Florence, by a popular vote, de- 
clares that Italy shall be independent of Austria, and 
places herself under the leadership of Sardinia and Victor 
Emmanuel. Austria now demands that Sardinia shall dis- 
arm and dismiss the Italian volunteers. War follows ; the 
Italians under Victor Emmanuel, allied with the French 
under Napoleon III., win the victories of jNIagenta and 
Solferino. Milan, evacuated by the Austrians, declares 
itself annexed to Sardinia. Modena and Parma likewise 
declare themselves to be under the lead of Victor Em- 
manuel. The war ends with the peace of Villafranca; 
Austria cedes the greater part of Lombardy to Napoleon, 
who is to give it to Sardinia ; the two emperors promise to 
urge an Italian confederation, with the pope for its hon- 
orary president, but the rights of the Austrian dukes ruling 
in north Italy are expressly reserved. Romagna at once 
declares in popular assembly for annexation to Sardinia, 
and its government is organized by Victor Emmanuel. 
The pope excommunicates all the promoters of this usur- 
pation ; but the placards of excommunication require an 
armed force to protect them. Tuscany, in popular assem- 
bly, votes that the Austrians are deposed and the country 
annexed to Sardinia. 

Northern Italy, except Venice, is now united \ ^^^^ 
under Sardinian rule ; Sicily desires to join this to 
union, but Victor Emmanuel hesitates to accept 
this new responsibility. Garibaldi, however, aided by 
Mazzini and a band of volunteers, enters Sicily, heads 



1870. 



628 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

a revolt against the Spanish Bourbons, wins Sicily and 
Naples, becomes their dictator, but shortly declares Victor 
Emmanuel "king of Italy." The king, however, does not 
accept this trust until he is chosen ruler by the votes of 
the people themselves. This following soon, he becomes 
king of all Italy save of Venice, still in the hands of 
Austria, and Rome, under the temporal rule of the pope, 
upheld by Fi-ench troops. In 1866, comes the battle of 
Sadowa, after which Austria surrenders the possession of 
Venice; Venice at once, by universal suffrage, votes her- 
self a part of the new Italy. Rome alone remains under 
foreign influence ; but, on account of the Franco-Prussian 
war, France is forced to recall her troops from Rome. 
Victor Emmanuel enters tlie city, and the Romans enthu- 
siastically vote themselves his loyal subjects. Thus Italy 
is united under the constitutional rule of Victor Emmanuel, 
and is once more governed from its historic centre. 

STUDY ON h. 

What are the two leading movements in Italian history, 1815-1870? 
What great feeling inspires each movement ? Name the other events 
in Europe which correspond to each of these movements. What facts 
of Italian history stimulate each of these movements ? What logical 
reason is there for the interference of European monarchs in Neapo- 
litan affairs? What facts sustain this logic? How could the Nea- 
politan king have secured his power and established 2^eace ? What 
power is on the side of Austria ? On the side of the Italian agita- 
tors ? Of what use to Italy was the participation of Sardinia in the 
Crimean war? Of what political value is the marriage of Victor 
Emmanuel's daughter ? Of what historic enmity does Cavour take 
advantage in his alliance with Napoleon III. ? What two facts make 
Victor Emmanuel the natural leader in the two Italian movements of 
our century? What great modern principle is recognized in the union 
of the various states of Italy to Sardinia? What two facts make 
Kome the natural capital of Italy ? 



MODERN EUROPE. 529 

c. Incidents and Sayuigs Ilhistrative of the Life and Character 
of Victor Emmanuel. (Dice3\) 

Victor Emmanuel and his brother rose at dawn, " studied 
hard, Uved simply, and were trained, almost before they were 
out of short clothes, to wear a uniform and carry arms." 
" Summer or winter, wet or dry, Charles Albert [their father] 
never missed the weeklj' reviews of the garrison of Turin, . . . 
and at these reviews he was invaria])ly accompanied by his two 
boys." '-Victor Emmanuel . . . learned to speak Italian per- 
fectly, as well as Fi-ench, the former accomplishment being b}- 
no means a common one in Piedmont, where French was the 
language of society, while the people spoke Piedmontese, a 
strange ]patois^ ... in which the Italian element is barely pre- 
dominant. He was also taught Latin, Roman history, the 
Catechism, and the art of war." 

After the battle of Novara, " as Victor Emmanuel rode awa}' 
at the head of his shattered regiments, he turned around towards 
the Austrian columns, which were pressing close upon his heels, 
brandished his sword towards the enemy, and said with a deep 
curse, ' But Italy shall be.' . . . Whether the words were used 
or not at the time assigned, it is certain that, from the day of 
Novara to that on which he entered Rome as king, Victor 
Emmanuel never wavered in his resolve that ' Italy should be.'" 

In 1849, in an appeal to the electors, Victor Emmanuel writes : 
' ' Never till tlie present day has the House of Savoy appealed 
in vain to the loyalty, the good sense, and the affection of its 
subjects ; I have therefore the right to trust in my people at 
the present moment, and to feel assured that, united one with tlie 
other, we sliall be able to uphold the Constitution, and to pre- 
serve the country from the dangers which threaten us." 

In 1859, referring to obligations alike to European powders 
and to Italy, Victor Emmanuel thus speaks to his parliament : 
"Our condition is not free from danger, because, altliough we 
respect treaties, we are not, and cannot be, insensible to the 
cry of anguish which is raised towards as from so many parts 
of Italy. Strong, however, in union, confident in our good 



630 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

right, we await, at once prudeDt and determined, the decrees of 
Divine Providence." 

When war was finally declared by Sardinia against Austria, 
and Cavour returned from Paris with the promise of French 
aid, he was welcomed with strong enthusiasm by the people of 
Turin. When he went to tell the king of his reception, Victor 
Emmanuel interrupted with the words: "There is no need 
for you to tell me anything, for while you were standing on the 
balcony, I was standing amidst the crowd below, shouting, 
' Hurrah for Cavour ! ' with the best of them." 

For this war, as he said, the king "had prayed and waited 
ten long years." 

Speaking of Mazzini at this time, he said: "You may 
depend upon it that, if I had believed IVIazzini had liad it in his 
power to make Italy independent, I should long ago have been 
a Mazzinean myself." 

"Indeed, at this moment Victor Emmanuel's elation of 
spirit was so great, that his generals and ministers thought it 
necessary to caution him against any reckless exposure of his 
person on the field of battle ; but to all these remonstrances the 
king turned a deaf ear. ' I am going,' he said, ' to send some 
thousands of men to death, and how could I ask them to die for 
Italy if I was not prepared to show them b}' my own example 
that the cause was one worth dying for?' " 

After the Peace of Villafranca, " the advice tendered to the 
leaders of the National movement in the insurgent provinces 
was to continue their preparations for resistance, and to trust, 
in case of need, to the House of Savoy. ' You may promise 
the Bolognese,' said the king, ' that if the Austrians should 
invade the sacred soil of our country, I will abdicate as my 
father did, and will come and take service as a private soldier 
in the ranks of their Volunteers.' " 

When the news came to Victor Emmanuel that Rome was 
again free to be the capital of Italy, he exclaimed: "At last 
. . . our arduous task is accomplished, and our country is recon- 
structed. The name of Rome, which is the grandest name 



MODERN EUROPE. 531 

uttered by the mouths of men, is joined with the name of Italy, 
the name which is dearest to my lieart." 

d. Words of Count Cavour, 

"1 am an honest middle-course man, desiring and hoping for 
social progress with all m}^ might, but resolved not to purchase 
it at the cost of a universal overtln-ow. ... I foresee that a 
tolerably violent crisis is inevitable. But I would have that 
crisis brought about with all the discretion compatible with ex- 
isting circumstances ; and, besides this, I am more than per- 
suaded that the mad attempts made b}^ the men of action do 
but retard and render it more risky." 

Cavour writes in 1854: "Since Providence has so willed it 
that Piedmont should alone be free and independent in Italy, it 
is the duty of Piedmont to use that liberty and independence in 
pleading the cause of our unfortunate peninsula before Europe. 
AVe will not shrink from that perilous task ; the king and the 
country are determined to accomplish it to the uttermost. . . . 
My whole life is consecrated to one object, — that of the eman- 
cipation of my country." 

In the Sardinian parliament Cavour writes thus in regard to 
sending soldiers to the Crimean war: " Our country must give 
evidence that her children can fight courageously on the field. 
Believe this, that the glory our soldiers will know how to 
achieve on the P]astern coast will do more for the future of 
Italy than all the noisy talking in the world. ..." 

Again, and later, "111 luck to him who renounces the land 
of his birth ; who renounces his brothers as unworthy of him. 
For myself, I am decided. . . . Happy or unhappy, my coun- 
try shall have my whole life." 

At twenty-four he writes : ' ' Societ}' is marching with long 
strides toward democracy. ... Is it a good? is it an evil? I 
know little enough; but it is, in my opinion, the inevitable 
future of humanity. Let us prepare ourselves for it, or, at 
least, let us prepare our descendants, whom it concerns more 
than us." 



6B2 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 

e. Extracts from Mazzini (from a pamphlet published in Lon- 
don after the battle of Novara). 

Mazzini describes his followers as " the sole party deserving 
the name of National, because while leaving intact each man's 
individual convictions, whether monarchial or republican, and 
asserting that the form of government shall be decided by the 
whole nation, legally represented, it inscribes upon its banner, 
' War by all, and for all : The Nation for the Nation. . . . ' 

"The path, I repeat, is clear. It is the path of Action, and 
they must pursue it, regardless of persecutions, delusions, or 
calumny ; they must live and die in faith and in action. The 
creation of Italy is an aim, which, achieved, will change the 
fate of Europe, and of Humanity. They must rise to the 
height of the Idea, and learn to truly love and to despise, — to 
love their Italian country with all their heart and soul, and to 
despise with all their soul the sufferings that inexorably attend 
upon that love. ..." 

******* 

" To labour to destroy the dualism set up between Piedmont 
and Italy ; to Italianize Piedmont, and convince her that she is 
but a zone of Italy, — the freest, — therefore having the great- 
est duties to perform. . . . 

"To unceasingly recall the Italians to the worship of the 
True ; to the adoration of principles ; to morality, without 
which they cannot exist as a Nation ; to teach them to abhor 
all those paltry falsehoods, small artifices, and cowardly trans- 
actions, which profane and degrade the cause of a People, the 
number of whose martyrs already- suffices to found a religion. 

"And, above all things, to prepare Action — Insurrection. 

"This is the program of all who profess themselves Apos- 
tles of the Nation." 

******* 

" We recognize no judges but God, our own consciences, and 
the Ital}' of the future. ..." 

"We hold it important to say that ... we have no duties, 
save to the common country ; that we hold omnipotent the duty 



MODERN EUROPE. 533 

of aiding the emancipation of our brethren ; that we believe the 
material means of every Italian city sacredly to belong to the 
National enterprise, that wheresoever the people desire to 
mobilise them for that intent we will encourage them to do it, 
as to a holy act." 

" When a people is enslaved, encircled by terror, bayonets, 
and spies, I know of but one possible educational initiative, — 
that of violentl}' exterminating spies, bayonets, and terror, and 
setting the people free and emancipated, face to face with their 
own mission. 

" Even if the Italians knew how and were allowed to read, I 
would therefore still say to those who cry, ' Books, systems, not 
arms,' ' Arms and Books ; first conquer yourselves a country, 
— Countr}^ is Duty, acknowledged, recognized, and felt. Your 
country is the idea of a mission to be fulfilled. Your country 
is a link, a communion, a visible Evangel of love among twenty- 
five millions of men, destined to become a Nation.'" 



STUDY ON c, d, e. 

How does each point in Victor Emmanuel's training help fit him 
for the work he is to do for Italy ? Make a list of the qualities of 
character and feeling shown by Victor Emmanuel. How does each 
one of these qualities and each one of these feelings fit him for his 
work ? Considering the character of the time and the feeling of the 
people, what quality or feeling is perhaps most valuable ? 

AYhat qualities of character shown by Cavour? How is each one 
valuable to a statesman in his circumstances ? AVhat quality has he 
that unites him to Victor Emmanuel? AVhat quality necessary to 
supplement Victor Emmanuel? Xame three aims of the policy of 
Cavour as seen in d. 

What two things are indicated by the fact that Mazzini's pamphlets 
are published in London? What fundamental difference between 
INIazzini's plans and ideas and those of Cavour? In what does the 
strength of each lie? Under the existing circumstances of Italy, 
which does she need most? Describe Mazzini's policy. What has he 
in common with Victor Emmanuel and Cavour? What has the feel* 
ing felt by Mazzini in conunon with a religious faith? 



534 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

6. Special Study on Socialism, 

a. Extracts from St. Simon. (French Socialist of Revolution 
ary period.) 

" Sire," he writes to the king, "the fundamental principles 
of society require men to regard each other as brothers, and to 
work together . . . for their common welfare." 

" Religion ought to direct society towards the great end of 
ameliorating, as rapidly as possible, the condition of the most 
numerous and least wealthy class." 

' ' Do not forget this ! Remember that to do grand things we 
must have enthusiasm. . . . All my life resolves itself into one 
great thought, — to secure for all mankind the most unfettered 
development of their faculties." 

" What is competition as far as the laborer is concerned? It 
is work put up at auction. An employer wants a man. Three 
men present themselves. . . . One demands sixty cents a day 
because he has a wife and children to maintain ; another has a 
wife but no children, and will take fifty cents. A third, who 
has neither, is satisfied with forty. . . . What becomes of the 
other two ? . . . Who then is so blind as not to see that under 
the empire of unlimited competition wages must reach their 
lowest ebb? . . ." 

St. Simon proposes cooperation, the motto of which is to be : 

" Ever}^ one to work according to his capacity and to receive 
the means of enjoyment according to his requirements. . . ." 
" The day will come when it will be recognized that he who has 
received from God more strength and intelligence owes more to 
his fellow-men in proportion." 

The program of the St. Simonists, appearing on the first page of 
their organ, the "Globe," on the 31st of Jan. , 1 831 , reads thus : — 

Religion. 

Scieiice. Industry. 

Universal Association. 

" All social institutions must have for their end the moral, 



MODEKN EUROPE. 535 

intellectual, and physical improvement of the largest and poorest 

class." 

''All privileges ot'biitli without exception are abolished." 
"To every one according to his capacity, to every capacity 

according to work done." 

h. From Karl Marx (German ; author of " Capital," the lead- 
ing Socialist work on political economy ; founder of theory of 
Social Democracy) . 

"Capital is the most terrible scourge of humanity; ... it 
fattens on the misery of the poor, the degradation of the worker, 
and the brutalizing toil of his wife and children : just as capital 
grows, so grows also pauperism . . . the revolting cruelties of 
our factory system, the squalor of great cities, and the presence 
of deep poverty seated hard by the gates of enormous wealth." 

" Our objects can only be attained by a violent subversion 
of the social order." 

"We must appeal to force to establish the rule of the 
laborers." 

c. FromLassaUe (German ; founder of Social Democratic party). 

"Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; God help me; 
Amen ! Even if it lead to my moral death ... I cannot act 
otherwise. An agitation of laborers exists ; they must have 
theoretical knowledge, they must have a watchword given them. 
They shall have it, even if it cost the head." 

"The alliance of science and the laborers, these two oppo- 
site poles of society, when once they shall have met and 
embraced each other, will crush all the impediments of culture 
within their brazen arms. This is the object for which I am 
determined to spend my life so long as there is any breath in 
me. ..." 

" Let others be happy ! In natures like mine it is enough to 
go on struggling, ... to waste away one's own heart, and yet 
to appear smiling while death is gnawing away at one's inmost 
soul." 



536 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

d. From the Program of the International (a society of work- 

ing-meu of all countries, founded in 1864).^ 

"In consideration that the emancipation of the laboring- 
classes must be accomplished by the laboring classes, that the 
battle for the emancipation of the laboring classes does not 
signify a battle for class privileges and monopolies, but for 
equal rights and duties and the abolition of class-rule ; 

"That the economic dependence of the laboring man upon the 
monopolist of the implements of work [land, machinery, build- 
ings, capital] . . . forms the basis of every kind of servitude, 
social misery, of spiritual degradation, of political dependence ; 

' ' That the emancipation of labor is neither a local nor a na- 
tional, but a social problem which embraces all countries in which 
modern society exists, and whose solution depends upon the 
. . . cooperation of the most advanced lands ; 

" In consideration of all these circumstances, the First Inter- 
national Labor Congress declares that the International Working- 
men's Association . . . recognizes truth, right, and morality as the 
basis of their conduct towards one another and their fellow-men, 
without respect to color, creed, or nationality. This congress 
regards it as the duty of man to demand the rights of a man 
and a citizen,, not only for himself, but for every one who does 
his duty. No rights without duties ; no duties without rights." 

e. From the Program of the Socialist Laborer Party m Germany. 

"1. Labor is the source of all wealth and all culture, and, 
as in general, productive labor is only possible through society, 
to society, that is, to all its members, belongs the aggregate 
product of labor, with the universal duty of labor according to 
equal rights to each according to his reasonable wants. 

"In the present society the means of labor [land, machinery, 

1 For this extract, I am indebted to Richard S. Ely's book on "French 
and German Sociahsm," a clear and admirable work, 



MODERN EUllOrE. 637 

buildings, cai)ital] are a monopoly of the capitalist class ; the 
hereby conditioned dependence of the laborer class is the cause 
of misery and slavery in all their forms. 

"The liberation of labor requires the conversion of the 
means of labor into conuuon property of society, and the regu- 
lation by the community of the aggregate labor, with a spend- 
ing for the common benefit and an equitable distribution of the 
product of labor. 

"The liberation of labor must be the work of the laborei 
class, in opposition to which all other classes are only a reac- 
tionary mass. 

" 2. Starting from these principles, the Socialist Laborer 
Party of German}' strives with all legal means after the free 
state and the Socialist society, the destruction o-f the law of 
wages through the abolition of the system of labor for wages, 
the abolition of plunder in every shape, the removal of every 
social and political inequality. 

" (1) The Socialist Laborer Party of Germany, though work- 
ing within the national framework, is conscious of the interna- 
tional character of the laborer movement, and determined to 
fulfil all duties which the same imposes on the laborers, in 
order to make the brotherhood of all men a reality. 

" (2) The Socialist Laborer Party of Germany demands, in 
order to pave the way for the solution of the social question, 
the establishment of Socialist producing associations, with state 
help, under the domestic control of the laboring people. The 
producing associations are to be called into life for manufac- 
tures and agriculture, to such an extent that out of them the 
Socialist organization of the aggregate labor may arise. 

"The Socialist Laborer Party of Germany demands as the 
principles of the state : — 

"1. Universal, equal, direct right of election and voting, the 
giving of the vote being secret and obligatory lor all i)ersons 
belonging to the state, from their twentieth year, for all elec- 
tions and votings in state or parish. The day of election or 
voting must be a Sunday or holiday. 



538 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

''2. Direct legislation by the people. Decision on war and 
peace by the people. 

"8. Universal bearing of arms. Defense by arming of the 
people instead of the standing arm}-. 

"4. Abolition of all exceptional laws, particularly the laws 
as to the press, as to associations, and as to assemblies. Es- 
pecially all laws which limit the free expression of opinion, free 
thinking, and investigation. 

" 5. The decision of law-suits by the people. The free ad- 
ministration of justice. 

" 6. Universal and equal education of the people by the 
state. Universal school attendance. Free instruction in all 
educational institutions. Religion to be declared a private 
matter. 

"The Socialist Laborer Party demands under the present 
society : — 

"1. The utmost possible extension of political rights and 
liberties in the direction of the above demands. . . . 

"3. Unrestricted libert}^ to combine. 

"4. A fixed labor-day corresponding to the requirements of 
society. The prohibition of Sunday labor. 

" 5. The prohibition of children's labor and of the labor of 
women that is injurious to health or morality. 

" 6. Laws protecting the lives and health of laborers. Sani- 
tary control of laborers' dwellings. The superintendence of 
mines, factories, workshops, and domestic manufactures by 
officials elected by the laborers. An effectual law making em- 
ployers responsible for injuries to their workmen. 

" 7. The regulation of prison labor. 

"8. Complete independence of administration of all funds 
for the relief or maintenance of laborers." 

STUDY ON 5. 

What feeling and what qualities of character displayed in a, b, 
What principle of action is asserted ? Make a list of the aims of the 
socialists. What modern institutions and theories are threatened by 



MODERN EUROPE. 539 

these aims? "Which of these aims appear to you praiseworthy? 
What have these aims in common with the teachings of early Chris- 
tianity (pp. 218-220) ? By what force are these demands backed ? 

6. Great Worlds, Foundations ^ Enter j>rlses, Inventions, 
Investigations of the Century, 

STUDY ON 6. 

Make lists for the nineteenth century corresponding to those given 
in preceding parts of this book for other periods. What do these 
lists teach you of the characteristics of our own age? In what does 
our own superiority or originality lie ? 

GENERAL REVIEW STUDY. 

In what period have the teachings of Christianity been most prac- 
tically regarded ? What is the force of each of the mottoes on p. 
491? What contribution to civilization has been made by each na- 
tion you have studied ? When did the peculiar tendencies and pecu- 
liar culture of the Middle Ages culminate? What justice in opening 
modern history, as some writers do, with the date 1789 ? About what 
body of water did the Greek and Oriental groups of civilization 
centre? The Roman group? The modern? In what age would you 
rather live if you could choose your place and rank? In what, if you 
must take your chance ? What answer will you give to one who says, 
" History repeats itself " ? To one who says, " There is no real prog- 
ress in human affairs ; nations rise, decline, and die " ? 



INDEX. 



INDEX. 



Explanation. — S, e, i, 6, u, y, indicate the short sounds of these 
letters, and a, e, i, o, u, y, their long sounds ; a =: a as in fall ; <j and <:h 
= k ; g = j, and g = g as in get. In diphthongs the combination is pro- 
nounced like the marked letter. The pronunciation followed is that of 
Webster. 



Ab'elard, 325, 
A'ben-Ezra, 325. 
Aboukir (a-boo-keer'), 

479. 
A'bu-bekr, 261. 
Aca'dia, 407, 442. 
A<jhae'an League, 121. 
Acrop'olis, 61, 83, 120. 
Act'iura, 174. 
Addison, 453. 
Aegos-pot'arai, 113. 
Aene'as Sylvius, 361. 
Aene'id, 208, 212. 
Aes'«hines, 96. 
Aes'-ehylus, 96 ; 

extracts from, 84. 
Ae'tius, 234. 
Aetolian League, 121. 
Agamem'non, 35. 
Agincourt (azhankoor'), 

346. 
A'gis, 121. 
Agrarian laws, 140, 170, 

174, 183, 198. 
Agrip'pa, 206. 
Ai'dan, 261, 273. 
Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la- 

shapel'), peace of, 

444. 



Albategni (al-bii-ta- 

nee), 302. 
Albert'us Mag'nus, 353. 
Al'aric, 233, 239. 
Albigen'ses, 322. 
Albany, 405. 
Albuca'sis, 303. 
Albuma'zar, 300. 
Alcuin (al'kwin), 262; 

extracts from, 274. 
Alchemy, 383. 
Al'dine press, 368. 
Alexander the Great, 

97, 119-126. 
Alexandria, 120, 122, 

124. 
Alexandrian kingdoms, 

119-126. 
Alexandrian library, 

122-124. 
Alfieri (al-fe-iV-ree), 

455. 
Alfonso the Wise of 

Castile, 354. 
Alfred the Great, 298, 

300, 309. 
Alhaz'en, 303. 
Alcae'us, 51. 
Alc'man, 51. 



Al Ma'niun, 300. 
Algeria, 507, 509. 
Al'miigest, 209. 
Alphabet, 24, 144,240; 

Gothic, 239. 
Alsace', 401, 440, 441, 

504. 
Al'va, Duke of, 404. 
Ambrose, St., 232, 236, 

246. 
Ammian'us, 236. 
Amphictyon'ic Council, 

36, 82, 116. 
Amphic'tyony, 35, 50, 

115, 117. 
Anaxag'oras, 96. 
Anaximan'der, 51. 
Androni'eus, 163. 
Angel'ico, Fra, 361. 
Anglo-Saxons, 234. 
Anne, 450. 
An'selm, 303, 323; 

extract from, 312. 
Anthony, St., 236. 
Anti-corn-law-league, 

511. [334. 

Antioch, 126, 319, 331, 
Anti'oehus the Great, 

156. 



54-1 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Antony, Mark, 174, 175. 
Antoni'nus Pi'us, 201. 
Apologists, Christian, 

209,210. [122. 

Apollun'ius of Kliodt'S, 
Apule'ius (yus), 208. 
Aquilei'a (see Venice). 
Aqui'nas, St. Thomas, 

354. 
Ara'tus, 122. 
Arbe'la, 120. 
Ar<ihil'ochus, 51. 
Archime'des, 122. 
Areh'ons, 02, 64, 70. 
Areop'agus, 62, 04, 70, 

91. 
Ar'gonauts, 34. 
A'rian controversy, 221, 

232, 233. 
Aristid'es, 77, 78, 84, 96. 
Aristot'le, 97, 266, 325. 
Aristar'<ihus, 123. 
Aristoph'anes, 97 ; 

extracts from, 112. 
Aristopli'anes of By- 
zantium, 123. 
Arios'td, 411. 
Ari'on, 51. 
A'rius, 236. 

Army, Roman, 195, 230. 
Arnold of Brescia 

(bresh'a), 325. 
Ar'rian, 208. 
Arteveld'e, Jacob van, 

358. 
A'ryans, 227. 
Asceticism, 220, 243, 

245. 
Assemblies of Estates, 

336. 
Assemblies, popular, of 

Rome, 131-133, 135. 
As'ser. 301. 



Athana'sius, 221, 236. 
At'talids, 121. 
At'tila, 233, 239. 
Auguries, 132, 149, 188. 
Augustine, St. (of Hip- 
po), 237, 246. 
Augustine, St., 254, 258. 
Augustus Cassar (see 

Caesar). 
Augsburg Confession, 

extracts from, 420. 
Aurel'ian, 204. 
Auspices, 132, 149. 
Austerlitz, 481. 
Australia, 509, 512. 
Austria, beginning of, 

294; union with 

Hungary, 400. 
Austria, House of, 343, 

344. 
Austrian Succession, 

War of, 443, 444. 
Austro-Prussian war, 

503. 
Autos-da-fe (au'tos-dii- 

fa), 404. 
Avars', 251. 
Aver'roKs, 325. 
Avicen'na, 304, 808. 
Avignon (aveenyon^), 

343, 344. 

Bab'ylon, 16, 17. 
BiVcon, Francis, 411, 

419. 
Ba'con, Roger, 354; 

extracts from, 384. 
Bagdad, 281,282, 315, 

34^. 
Balbo'a, 418. 
Baldwin, 319, 321. 
" Bank of Conversions," 

464. 



Ban'nockburn, 350. 

Barbarians, 231. 

Barons, feudal, 288. 

Bas'il, St., 237. 

Bastille (bas-teel'), 475. 

Battle of the Pyramids, 
479. 

" Battle of the Spurs," 
346. 

Bayeux (bil-yuh') tapes- 
try, 309. 

Bede, 263. 

Bek'et, Thomas, 323, 
326. 

Belgium, 501. 

BelTsa'rius, 251, 258. 

Benedict, St., 258. 

Benedict, 263. 

Benedictine monks, 258, 
269. 

Ben'tham, Jeremy, 453. 

Beo'wulf, 266. 

Berkeley, Bishop, 452. 

Berlin, treaty of, 506. 

Bernard', St., 320, 326. 

Bero'sus, 123. 

Bible (see Septuagint). 

Bible (Tyn'dale's),407; 
(King James' ver- 
sion), 408; (transla- 
tions of), 412; ex- 
tracts from, 27-29 ; 
218-220. 

Bi'on, 123. 

Bishops, 230, 231, 2-12, 
288, 337. 

Bismarck, 500, 523. 

" Black Death," 346, 
351. 

" Black Prince," 346, 
391. 

Blanc, Louis, 508. 

" Bloody Mary," 407. 



INDEX. 



545 



Boccaccio (bok-kat- 

cho), 358. 
Boe'thius, 258. 
Bologna (bolon'ya) 
[" 329. 

" Book of tlie Dead/' 5. 
Boniface, Winifried, 

263. 
Borghese (bor-ga'-sa), 

415. 
Bosnia, 506. 
Bourgeoisie (boor- 

zhwaw'-zie), 461, 468. 
Bouvines (booveen'), 

323. 
Bramante (bra-man'- 

ta), 417. [440,442. 
Brandenburg, 294, 401, 
Brazil, 405. 

Breda (bnV-da), decla- 
ration of, 448. 
Breda (bra'-dii), treaty 

of, 441. 
Brienne (bre-enne'), 

465. 
Bright, John, 511. 
Bruce, Robert, 350, 358. 
Brunelleschi (broo- 

nelles'kee), 361. 
Brutus, 151, 174, 175. 
Buf'fon, 454. 
BulgtVria, 310, 505, 506. 
Bundesrath (bunt'es- 

rat), 498. 
Bunyan, 451. 
Buoniirot'ti, Michael 

Angelo, 412. 
Burgundians, 233, 250. 
Burgundy, 348. 
Burke, 453. 

Butler's "Analogy," 452. 
Byrhtnoth's (buert'- 

note) death, 310. 



ByzSn'tiuni, 90 (see 

Constantinople). 
Cabinet, French, 496. 
Cabinet, English, 493. 
CaVots, 418. 
Caecil'ius, 163. 
Caedmon (kad'nion), 

261. 
Cae'sar, Augustus, 174, 

189, 196,212. 
Caesar, Julius, 174, 175, 

182-187. 
Caesar, Octavian (see 

Augustus Caesar). 
Cai'ro, 294, 320. 
Calais (kala'), 408. 
Caliphate, 255, 262, 294. 
Calonne (kalonn'), 465. 
Calvin, 400. 
Canada, 509, 512. 
Can'nae, 154, 160. 
Canos'sa, 296. 
" Canterbury Tales," 

358. 
Camiiaus, 148, 150. 
■Gam'oens, 411. 
Campo Form'io, peace 

of, 478. 
Ca'pet, Hugh, 298, 303. 
Capit'ularies, 228, 263, 

268. 
Caracal'la, 203. 
Car'dan, 362. 
Cardinals, 337. 
Car'thage, 3, 23, 138, 

152, 155, 158 (see 

Punic Wars). 
Cassiodo'rus, 259. 
Cas'sius, 174, 175. 
Cas'sius, Di'on, 210. 
Castle of San Angelo, 

200. 
Cathedrals, 366, 414. 



Catherine of Aragon, 

407. 
Catherine the Second 

(of Russia), 445. 
Catholic relief act, 510 
Cat'illne, 173, 183. 
Cato the Elder, 163, 

189. 
Cato the Younger (of 

Utica), 163. 
CatuKlus, 175. 
Cavour (ciivoor'), 526 ; 

extracts from, 531. 
Caxton, 362, 368. 
Celibacy of clergy, 295 
Censors, 134. 
Centur'iate Assembly, 

132, 133, 135, 146. 
Cervan'tes, 411. 
Cesaire (sesair'), St., 

259. 
■Ghagrone'a, 117. 
Chalons (shaldn'), 234. 
Chancellor, German, 

498. 
Charities, 199, 201, 237, 

238. 
Charlemagne (shJlr^- 

le-miine), 255, 263, 

274. 
Charles I. (England), 

408, 400. 
Charles II. (of Eng- 
land), 440, 447, 448. 
Charles V. (emperor), 

399, 404. 
Charles X. (France), 

507. 
Charles Martel', 254, 

263. 
Chartists, 510, 511. 
Chaucer, 358 ; extracts 

from, 389-391. 



546 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Chemistry, 455. 
•ehe'ops, 5. 
China, French and 

Englis4i war with, 503. 
Chivalry, 382. 
Choras^mians, 345. 
Christians, 204, 213, 217, 

231, 233; extracts 

from writings, 218- 

220. 
Christianity, 232, 267. 
•ehrysos^tom, St., 237. 
Church of England, 

262, 407, 408, 509. 
Church law, 309, 369. 
Church organization, 

337. 
Church and State, 

struggle of, 504. 
Cic^ero, 173, 175, 180, 

188. 
Cid, 304. 
Cimabue (che-ma- 

boo'a), 354. 
Ci'mon, 90, 91, 98, 102. 
Cincinna'tus, 147. 
Circus, Roman, 141, 245. 
Cisalpine Republic, 

478. 
Citizenship, English, 

494. 
Citizenship, French, 

497. 
Citizenship, German, 

499. 
Citizenship, Greek (see 

Constitutions). 
Citizenship, Roman, 

140, 170, 172, 174, 194, 

203 (see also Con- 
stitutions). 
Citizenship, Teutonic, 

224. 



Civil war in England, 

432-436. 
Civil war in France, 406. 
Clar'endon, 448. 
Clar'endon, constieu- 

tions of, 323. 
Claud'ian, 239; 

extracts from, 247. 
Claud 'ius, 197. 
Claud'Jus II., 204. 
Clem'ent, St., 210. 
Cleom'enes, 121. 
Clergy, estate of, 336. 
Clis'thenes, 69. 
Cloa'ca Max'ima, 141. 
Clo'vis, 250, 259. 271. 
Coalition, Second, 480. 
Cobden, 511. 
Code Napoleon, 479. 
Co'la di Rienzi (dee 

ree-en'tze), 344. 
Col'St, 416, 419. 
Colise'um, 197. 
Colonies, Dutch, 405. 
Colonies, English, 409, 

509, 512. 
Colonies, European, 456. 
Colonies, Greek, 47, 49. 
Colonies, Roman, 139, 

170, 171, 174. 
Colonies, Spanish and 

Portuguese, 405, 512. 
Colum^ba, St., 259. 
Cdlumba^nus, St., 259. 
Columbus, 404, 418, 421. 
Comines (komeen^), 

Philip de, 362 ; ex- 
tract from, 393. 
Committee of Public 

Safety, 477. 
Commons, estate of, 336. 
Commons, House of, 

350, 351, 494. 



Commonwealth, Eng- 
lish, 447. 

Commune, Paris, 508. 

Compass, 369. 

Concordat of Francis 
I., 405. 

Concordat of Worms. 
321. 

Confederation of the 
Rhine, 481, 486. 

Confession of Augs- 
burg, 400. 

Congress of Vienna, 
483, 514, 515. 

Con^stantine, 231, 237. 

Constantinople, 231, 
232, 267, 334, 345. 

Constitutions of Claren 
don, 323. 

Constitution, English, 
492-494. 

Constitution, French, 
495; under Old Re- 
gime, 460, 461. 

Constitution, German 
Empire, 497. 

Constitution of the 
Year VIII., 479. [522, 

Constitutions, German, 

Constitutions, Greek ; 
Spartan, 57 ; Athe- 
nian, 62, 64, 70. 

Constitutions, Roman 
republican, 131-135 ; 
imperial, 193-195, 
229, 247, 248. 

Consuls, 132, 134. 

Corcyr'a, 93, 94. 

Corin'na, 51. 

Corneille (cornaF), 453 

Corone'a, 92. 

Corn-laws, 170, 511. 

Corporation act, 510, 



INDEX. 



547 



Oor't^s (Spanish), 336. 
Cor'tez, 404, 418. 
Council of Chalce^don, 

267. 
Council of Clermont, 

29G, 329. 
Council of Constance, 

344. 
Council of Nice, 232. 
Council of Trent, 400; 

extracts from, 424. 
Court, Roman Imperial, 

229. 
Court, French, 466-468. 
Cras^sus, 173, 174. 
Crecy (cres^sy), 346. 
Crime^'a, 445. 
Crime^an war, 502. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 409, 

447. 
Cromwell, Richard, 448. 
Crusade, First, 329-332, 

333. 
Crusade, Second, 332. 
Cu^rials, 230, 243. 
Cfir^'iate Assembly, 131, 

133, 135. 
Cusa^'nus, 362. 
Cuthbert, St., 261. 
Cyclopedias, 453, 454. 
Cynewulf (kuen^ewulf ), 

264. 
Cynic philosophy, 123. 
Cyprian, St., 210. 
Cyp^selus, 51. 

Da^cia, 199. 
Danes, 294, 298, 310. 
DarFus, 73, 75, 77, 120. 
Dan^te, 358 ; extracts 

from, 386. 
Dan^ton, 476. 
Dauphiny, 348. 



Debt-laws, 63, 145. 

Decam^eron, 358. 

Decius, 204, 

Declaration of Rights, 
450. 

Docur^ions, 230. 

Delphi and Delphic 
oracle, 35, 36, 60, 55, 
56, 68, 69, 77, 85, 86, 
91, 94, 115, 119, 161. 

Delphic Amphictyons, 
36, 50, 82, 115-117. 

De^os, 90. 

Demos^thenes, 97, 116, 
121. 

Denmark, 502. 

Deputies, French Cham- 
ber of, 496. 

Descartes (dil-cart^), 
419. 

Duid^ochae, 122. 

Dictator, 133, 135. 

Dictionaries, 453, 454. 

Diet, German, 337. 

Dietrich (deefrik) of 
Berne, 250. 

Diocle^tian, 205. 

Diodo^rus, 206. 

Diog^enes, 123. 

DIGnys^ius, 206. 

Directory, 478, 479. 

Disestablishment of 
Irish Church, 512. 

DisnVeli, 512. 

Dissenters, 408, 448. 

Divine Comedy,358,359. 

Division of Roman 
Empire, 232. 

Domesday Book, 309. 

Domin^icans, 355. 

Dominic, St., 355. 

Domi^tian, 198. 

Donatel^o, 362. 



"Don QuTxT)te," 411. 
Dorian migration, 35. 
" Dragonnades," 464. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 408. 
DungaF, 264. 
Dunstan, St., 302. 
Dryden, 452. 
Dil^rer, Albert, 413. 

East India Company, 

408. 
Eastern question, 502, 

505. 
Eccle'sia, 70, 71, 77, 

78. 
Ecgbehrt (eg'bert), 298. 
Edda, extracts from, 

226. 
Edes'sa, 319. 
Edict of Nantes (nantz), 

406, 463. 
Edward 1., 350, 355. 
Edward III., 346, 351. 
Edward VI., 407. 
Eg'inhard, 264. 
Egypt and Egyptians, 

4, 49, 79, 121. 
Egyptian literature, 

extracts from, 10-15. 
Eloi', St., 261. 
El'gin marbles, 87. 
Eliot, Sir John, 408. 
Elizabeth, 408, 429, 430. 
Elsass (see Alsace). 
Emancipation in Prus- 
sia, 487 ; in Russia, 

513; in U.S., 513. 
Emigrants, French, 

475. 
Emperor, German, 497. 

504 ; of Holy Roman 

Empire, 289, 337 ; 

Roman, 193. 



548 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Engraving, 369. 
En^nius, 163. 
Epaminon^das, 97, 115. 
Eph^ors, 57. 
Epicte^tus, 206, 213. 
Epicure^an philosophy, 
^ 124. 

Epicu^rus, 124. 
Eras^mus, 411, 419. 
Eratos^thenes, 124. 
Erige^'na, 301 ; extracts 

from, 312, 313. 
Esco'rial, 414, 
Established Church 

(see Church of 

England). 
Establishments of St. 

Lewis, 356, 380. 
Estates, 336. 
Euclid, 124. 
Euem'eros, 124. 
Eugene, Prince, 442,443 
Eurip'ides, 97 ; extracts 

from, 110, 111. 
Eu^menes II., 124. 
Eu^patrids, 61. 
Euse^bius, 238. 
Eutro^pius, 238. 
Exareh and exarchate, 

251, 255. 
Exodus, 6, 26. 

Ea^bius Max^imus, 160, 

163, 164. 
"Faery Queen," 410. 
Fall of the Western 

Empire, 235. 
False Decre^tals, 309. 
"Faust," 455. 
Ferdinand and Isabella, 

352, 404. 
Feudalism, 287-291. 
Fichte (fik^teh), 488. 



Fiefs, 287. 
Florida, 404, 445. 
Fontainebleau (fontan- 

hW), 414. 
F5^rum, 140, 143. 
Fox, 453. 
Francis L, 405. 
Francis, St., of Assisi 

(asee^se), 355. 
Franciscans, 355. 
Franche-Comte (fronsh 

kOn^a), 440. 
Franco-Prussian war, 

504, 522. 
Franks, 233. 
Frederic Barbarossa, 

320, 321, 326. 
Frederic the Great, 443- 

445. 
Frederic William IV., 

519. 
French and Indian war, 

444. 
French Revolution, 

474-479. 
Froissart (frois^sart), 

359 ; extracts from, 

391, 393. 
Fulk of Neuilly (nweeK- 

eh), 320. 

Gal^ba, 214. 

Ga^en, 209, 266. 

Galile^o, 419. 

Gall, St., 259. 

" Gargant^ua and Pan- 

tag^ruel," 411. 
Garibaldi, 527. 
Gaul, 171, 174. 
Gauls, 138, 148. 
Geb^er, or Jeber (yeb^- 

er), 264. 
General Councils, 337. 



General Privilege, 352. 
Gen^ghiz Khan, 343. 
Gen^seric, 233, 234, 239. 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 

326. 
Gerbert (Sylvester II.), 

302. 
" Germa^nia," 210 ; ex- 
tracts from, 222. 
German Confederation, 

517. 
German Confederation 

(North), 522. 
German Empire, 523. 
Ghib^elin, 322, 343. 
Ghiberti (ge-bar^tee), 

363. 
Gibbon, 452. 
Gibraltar, 442. 
GiKdas, 259. 
Giotto (jot^to), 359. 
Girondists, 477. 
Gladiators, 167, 173, 184, 

215, 242. 
Gladstone, 512. 
Glanvil, Bartholomew, 

359. 
Gnostics, 220. 
Godfrey of Bouillon, 

319, 326, 411. 
Goethe (gui-teh), 455. 
" Golden Bull," 344. 
Gor^gias, 97. 
Goths, 204, 232, 249. 
Grac^«hi, 170, 171, 176. 
Grand Alliance, 441. 
Grain distribution, 165, 

213, 242. 
Grana^da, 352, 404. 
Gran'icus, 119. 
Great Arma^da, 405, 

428. 
Great Charter, 349, 378. 



INDEX. 



549 



Great Interregnum, 343. 
Greek Church, 293. - 
Greek deities, 3G. 
Greek leagues, 121. 
Greek tragedians, ex- 
tracts from, 110. 
Grego^rian chant, 260. 
Gregory the Great 

(First), 251, 260, 270. 
Gregory the Great 

(Seventh), 295, 296, 

305. 
Gregory Nazian'zen, 238. 
Gregory of Tours (toor), 

259; extracts from, 

271. 
Grosseteste (grossest), 

Robert, 356. 
Grotius (grd^shus), 

Hugo, 419. 
Guelph(gwC4f),322,343. 
Guilds, 338-340. 
Gunpowder, 369, 420. 
Gustavus Adolphus, 

401. 
Gutenberg, 363. 

Ha^beas Corpus, 379. 
Ha^drian, 200. 
Ham^baeh festival, 520. 
Hampden, 409. 
Hannibal, 154, 158, 161. 
Hanse, 343. 
Harvey, 419. 
Haroun-al-Raschid (ha- 

roon^-alrash^id), 264, 

281, 284. 
Hastings, 299. 
Hecatae'us, 51. 
Hegi'ra, 251. 
Hellenic convention 

and confederacy, 89, 

90, 92. 



Hellespont, bridging of, 

79. 
Helots, 48, 91. 
Helve^tius, extracts 

from, 472. 
Helvetic Republic, 479. 
Henry I., 323. 
Henry II., 323. 
Henry IV., 295, 296 ; 

(of France), 406. 
Henry VIII., 407. 
Henry of Navarre, 406. 
HerScli'tus, 51. 
Herodotus, 98 ; extracts 

from, 53. 
Herzegovina (hert-se- 

go-vee''-na), 506. 
Hesiod (hee''-she-od),51. 
Hildebrand (see Grego- 
ry VII.). 
Hinc^mar, 301. 
Hippar^-ehus, 125. 
Hip^pias, 69, 73, 75. 
Hippoc^rates, 98. 
Hobbes, extract from, 

434. 
Ho^garth, 456. 
Holbein (hol-bine), 414. 
Holland, 401, 404. 
Holy Alliance, 483. 
Holy Roman Empire, 

255, 294, 481. 
Homage, 288. 
Homer, 163, 208. 
Homeric poems, 35, 37. 
Horace, 206 ; extracts 

from, 188, 189. 
Hospitals, 308, 

458. 
Hos^pitallers, 329. 
Howard, John, 458. 
Hrdlf (see Rollo). 
"Hu^dibras," 452. 



Hu^guenots, 400, 406, 

407. 
Humanism, 360. 
Hume, 452. 
Hundred Years' War, 

346, 351. 
Hungarians, 293, 294. 
Hungary, 234, 352, 400, 

441, 502. 
Huns, 232, 233, 234. 
Huss, 344. 

Huygens (hi-gens), 455. 
Hyk^sos, 6. 

Image-worship, 293. 

Inquisition, 369, 404. 

" Instrument of Govern- 
ment," 447. 

International, the, 536. 

iG^na, 259. 

lon^ians, 48. 

Ireland, 323, 509, 512. 

Irish, 234, 240. 

Irish Church disestab- 
lished, 512. 

Isidore^an decretals,309. 

Isido^rus, 261. 

Islam, 293. 

IsoC^rates, 98. 

Is^sus, 120. 

Isth^mean games, 50. 

Jacquerie (zhiikree^), 

348. 
Jahn (y an), 489. 
James I., 408, 432. 
James II., 449, 450. 
Jeanne d'Arc (zhan 

darkO, 346, 363. 
Jena (ya^na), 481. 
Jerome, St., 238. 
Jerome of Prague, 344, 

363. 



550 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORYo 



Jerusalem (Omar's con- 

questof), 280; 320,345. 
" Jerusalem Delivered," 

410. 
Jesuits, 418. 
John Ball, extract from, 

393. [349. 

John Lackland, 323, 324, 
John of Salisbury, 326. 
John Sco^tus (see 

Erigena). 
Johnson, 453. 
Joinville, 356. 
Jonson, 410. 
Jorda^nis, 260. 
Jose^phus, 206. 
Jugurth^a, 171, 177, 178, 

180. 
Julian, 232, 238, 243. 
Julius Csesar (see 

Caesar). 
Justinian, 251, 260. 
Justinian Code (see 

Roman Law). 
Ju^venal, 209. 

Kant, 454. 

Kar'nak, 6. 

Kelts, 154, 227. 

Kem'pis, Thomas a, 
363. 

King, Assyrian, 17 ; 
English, 492 ; feudal, 
268,287,437; French, 
460, 466, 467, 470 ; 
Roman, 131 ; Teuton- 
ic, 223. 

King George's War, 
444. 

Kirk, 409. 

Knights of St. John, 
329. 



Knox, 400, 408. 
Koran, 261 ; extracts 
from, 276, 279. 



Labor agitations, 509, 
510 (see Socialism). 

Laborers, English, 392. 

Labyrinth, 5. 

Lactan^tius, 210. 

Lancaster, House of, 
352. 

Land acts, Irish, 512. 

Land distribution (see 
Agrarian Laws.) 

Land tenure, Teutonic, 
222. 

Lanfranc (lonfron^), 
305. 

Langland, William, 359. 

Langton, Stephen, 349, 
356. 

La^res, 144. 

Lassalle^, extracts from, 
535. 

Last Supper, 412. 

Latin Church, 293. 

Latin Empire of Con- 
stantinople, 321. 

Latin Kingdom of Jeru- 
salem, 319. 

Latin league, 138. 

Latin right, 140. 

LtVtium, 129, 137, 138. 

La Vend/e (von-dii''), 
477. 

Law, Church, 208, 329. 

Law, international, 419. 

Law, feudal, mediseval, 
267, 268. 

Law, Roman, 143, 145, 
200, 239, 251, 267. 



Layamon {ly^-a-mon), 

356. 
Lay investiture, 295, 

321, 322. 
League of Cambray^, 

403. 
League of the Hanse, 

343. 
League of the ''Public 

Good," 348. 
League of the Rhine, 

343. 
League of Smalkiild, 

400. 
Leibnitz (ITp^nits), 454. 
Le^o I., the Great, St., 

234, 239. 
Leon^idas, 80, 82. 
Lep^idus, 174. 
Lessing, 455. 
Leuk^tra, 115. 
" Leviathan," 434, 452. 
Lewis VI., 322. 
Lewis IX., the Saint, 

345, 356. 
Lewis XL, 348. 
Lewis XIV., 439, 440, 

441. 
Lewis XVI., 465, 475. 
Lewis XVIIL, 483, 507. 
Linnae^us, 455. 
Li^vy, 207. 
Locke, 452, 454. 
LoKlards, 351. 
Lombards, 251. 
Lombard league, 321. 
Lorraine^, Claude, 456. 
Louisiana, 445. 
Louis Napoleon, 507, 

508(see Napoleon III.). 
Louis Philippe, 507. 
Louvre (loo^ver), 414. 
Loyola (loio^la), 418. 



INDEX 



551 



Lu^can, 207. 
Lu'cian, 209. 
Lucre^tius, 170, 188. 
"Lu^siad,"411. 
Luther, 899; extracts 

from, 423. 
Lutzen (loot^zen), 401. 
Luxor, 6. 
Lykurgus, 56, 58. 

Macedon, 121, 156, 157. 
Macedonian War, 165. 
MachiaveFli, 363. 
MacMahon (mac-ma- 

6n^), 508. 
Maece^nas, 208. 
Magellan, Magalhaes 

(magalyii^-es), 418. 
Magenta, 503, 527. 
Mag^na €har^ta, 349. 
Magnes^ia, 156. 
Magyars (see Hunga- 
rians). 
Maimon^ides, 327. 
Malmes^bury, William 

of, 327. 
Man^deville, Sir John, 

359 ; extracts from, 

388. 
Mane^tho, 125. 
Manichae^ans, 220. 
Manin (ma-neen^), 526. 
Manor, 291. 
Manorial court, 291. 
Map, Walter, 327. 
Mar^athon, 75. 
" Marble Faun," 99. ' 
MarceK, Etienne, 348, 

360. 
Marcella, St., 240. 
Marcellus, 163. 
Marcus AureFius, 203, 

217. 



Maria Theresa, 443, 444. 
Marie Antoinette (ma- 
re^ on-twa-net'), 477. 
MiVrius, 171, 172, 176, 

180, 183. 
Mark, march, 294. 
Mark, Teutonic, 222 ; 

mark-moot, 223. 
Mark's, St., 308. 
Marlborough, 442. 
Martial, 207. 
Martin, St., 239. 
Mary Queen of Scots, 

408. 
Marx, Karl, extracts 

from, 535. 
Masaccio (ma-zat^-cho), 

364. 
Massinissa, 155, 158. 
Matthew Paris, 357. 
Mausoleum, 100. 
Maxim^ian, 205. 
Mazzini (matzee^neh), 

526, 527; extracts 

from, 532, 533. 
Medici, Cosimo di and 

Lorenzo, 364 ; Mary 

and Catherine de, 406. 
Melanc^thon, 419. 
Memnon, colossi of, 6. 
Menan^der, 125. 
Mendicant orders, 338. 
MeteFlus, 178. 
Metrics, 48. 
Met^terni^h, 515, 518, 

525. 
Mexico, 404, 513. 
Michael Angelo (see 

Buonarotti). 
Military orders, 338. 
Milti^ades, 75, 90. 
Milton, 451. 
Ministry, 449, 450, 451. 



Minnesingers, 367 ; 

extracts from, 385. 
Mirandola (mee-riin^-do- 

la), 364. 
Missionaries, 419,369. 
Mithrida^es, 172, 173. 
Moe^ris, Lake, 5. 
Moguls, 343, 345, 352. 
Moham^med, 251, 261. 
Mohammedan conquest, 

254, 279, 280. 
Mohammedan civiliza- 
tion, 300-304, 309, 

315-318. 
Moliere (mo-le-air^), 

453. 
Monasteries, 258-260, 

269, 274, 298 ; disso- 
lution of, 407. 
Monasticism, 235, 237, 

238, 240, 243. 
Monastic orders, 338. 
Monk, General, 448. 
Montaigne (mon-tan^), 

411. 
Mon^tanists, 220. 
Mon^te Cassino (kas- 

seen^), 258, 270, 308. 
Montenegro (monta- 

na^-gro), 505. 
Montesquieu (mon^-tes- 

ku), 454. 
More, Sir Thomas, 

419; extract from, 

431. 
Moors, 254 ; in Spain, 

293, 318, 352, 405. 
Mos^cow, Napoleon at, 

483. 
Mummies, 7. 
Museum. Alexandrian, 

125. 
Museum, British, 458. 



552 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 



Mjc^^le, 87. 
My^ron, 98. 

Nac'^vius, 163. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 

478-484, 487, 489, 490. 
Napoleon III., 507, 508, 

527. 
National Assembly, 

French, 475. 
National Assembly, 

German, 522. 
Naval "warfare, laws of, 

503. 
Navigation act, 439. 
Nebuchadnezzar, 17. 
Necker, 405, 466. 
Nelson, 479, 481. 
Ne^mean games, 50. 
Ne^pos, Cornelius, 176. 
Nero, 197. 
Nerva, 198. 

Netherlands, 404; Span- 
ish, 441, 442. 
New Comedy, 125. 
Newton, 452, 455. 
New York City, 405, 441. 
Nibelungen Lied (leed), 

367. 
NFcene Creed, 232. 
Nihilists, 513. 
Nilom^eter, 5. 
Nimwegen (ne-m3.^-gen), 

peace of, 440. 
Nineveh, 17. 
Nobility : French, 460, 

467 ; Koman, 244 ; 

Teutonic, 226. 
Nominalism, 304. 
Normans, 293, 297. 
Normandy, 298. 
Northmen (see Danes 

and Normans). 



Nova^ra, 526, 530. 
" No^vum Orga^num," 
419. 

" Oath of the Tennis 

Court," 475. 
Observatories, 457. 
Oc^cam, William of, 360. 
Oddva^ker, 240. 
Olympic games, 49, 80. 
O^mar, 262, 280. 
Opium war, 511. 
Order^'icus Vita^lis, 327 ; 

extracts from, 313, 

329. 
Organs, 308. 
Or^igen, 211. 
Orlan^do Furios^o, 410. 
Ord^sius, extracts from, 

249. 
Os^tracism, 71. 
Oth^man, 262. 
Otho, 214. 

Otto the Great, 290, 303. 
0^-id, 208. 
Oxygen, 455. 

" Painted porch," 99. 

Palat^inate, 441. 

Fanathenae^a, 104. 

Pan^dects (see Roman 
law). 

Pantheon, 206. 

Papal legates, 337. 

Pil^phos, 23. 

Paper, 308, 369. 

Pjxpy^ri, 7. 

Paris, 348 ; schools of. 
329; peace of, 444, 
502 ; and Versailles 
(ver-salz^), treaties 
of, 446. 

Parisians, 297. 



Parliament, 336, 350, 

493; "Barebones," 

447 ; " Rump," 447, 

448. 
Ptirnas^sus, 36. 
Par^thenon, 71, 87, 99. 
Parties, French, 507; 

English, 510. 
Pas^cal, 453. 
Patriarchal power, 145. 
Patricians, 130, 146 ; 

title of, 234. 
Patrick, St., 234, 240. 
Pausa^nias, 90, 209. 
"Peace of AntaPcidas," 

114. 
Peace of Augsburg, 400, 
Peace of Oliva, 440. 
Peace of Pyrenees, 439, 

440. 
Peace of Westphalia, 

401. 
Peasants, French, 461, 

468. 
Peasant revolt, Eng- 
land, 351. 
Peasants' war, 427. 
Peloponne'sian war, 93, 

113. 
Pentarchy, 483. 
Penates, 143. 
Per'gamos, 121 ; library 

of, 124. 
Perian'der, 52. 
Per'icles, 91, 92, 95, 99, 

102 ; extracts from, 

105-107. 
Perioc'ci, 48. 
Perseus, 166. 
Persian wars, 73 et seq. 
Perugino (pu-roo-jee'- 

no), 365. 
Peter the llernut, 319. 



INDEX. 



553 



Peter's, St., 414. 

Petition of Kight, 433. 

Pe'trarch, 3G0. 

Pharsa'lia, 174, 187. 

Phi'dias, 99. 

Phi'don, 52. 

Philip of Macedon, 115, 
117. 

Philip Augustus, 320, 
321, 328. 

Philip II. of Spain, 404. 

Philippi, 174. 

"Philippics," 97, 116. 

Philosophy, Greek, 2G6 ; 
inductive, 419 ; Pla- 
tonic, 419 ; eighteenth 
century, 453-455. 

Phoenicians, 79. (See 
study on.) 

Picts' wall, 200. 

Pilgrims, 294, 290. 

" Pilgrim's Progress," 
451. 

Pin'dar, 99. 

Pisis'tratus and Pi- 
sis' tratids, 65-09, 
77. 

Pitt, 453. 

PI^us II., 361. 

Piztir^ro, 404, 418. 

Plate^a, 86. 

Pla^to, 99. 

Plautus, 163. 

Plebei^ans, 130, 146. 

Pliny the Elder, 208; 
the Younger, 209 ; 
extracts from, 216. 

Plu^tarch, 209. 

Poitiers (poyteers^), 
346, 391. 

Poland, 321, 343, 352, 
513 ; partitions of, 
445, 484. 



Polish succession, war 

of, 443. 
Po^lo, Marco, 357. 
Polyb^ius, 163. 
Polygno^tus, 99. 
Polycle^tus, 99. 
Pompe^ii, 197. 
Pompey, 173, 174, 176. 
Pope, 290, 337, 343, 344. 
Pope, Alexander, 452. 
Por^phyry, 211. 
Prae^tor, 134, 157. 
Praetd^rian guard, 195, 

203. 
Pragmatic Sanction, 

444. 
Praxit^eles, 99. 
President, French, 495. 
(Priestley, 455. 
Prime Minister,450, 492, 
" Principia," 452. 
Printing, 368. 
Proconsul, 157. 
Proc5^pius, 260. 
Protectorate, 447. 
Protestants, 399. 
Protestantism, 404. 
Provinces, Roman, 157, 

194, 195, 217. 
Prussia, 294, 352, 442, 

522. 
Ptolemies, 121, 122, 125. 
Ptolemy, 209. 
Punic wars, 153 et seq. 
Puritans, 408, 432. 
Pyd^na, 156, 168. 
Pym, 409. 
Pyramids, 9. 
Pyr^rho, 126. 
Pythag^oras, 52. 
Pythian games, 50. 

Quadruple Alliance, 443. 



Quintil'ian, 208. 

Rabelais (ni^-be-la), 

411. 
Racine (rji^-seen), 453. 
Raleigh (raw^li), 408; 

extract from, 422. 
Rame^ses II., 6. 
Ra^phael, 3G5, 412. 
Rastadt (rastiit), treaty 

of, 442. 
Ra^zT, or Rha^zes, 302. 
Realists, 304. 
Real Presence (see 

Transubstantiation). 
Reform bill of 1832, 

510. 
Reformation, 398, 422- 

427, 432 ; in England, 

407; in Scotland, 409. 
Reichstag (riks-tak), 

498. 
Reign of Terror, 477. 
Rem^brandt, 413. 
Restoration, English, 

448. 
" Retreat of the Ten 

Thousand," 100. 
Revolution, Italian, 501, 

525-528; Spanish, 

501, 525 ; of 1688, 

450. 
Richard I. of England, 

320, 324, 328. 
Richelieu (resh-eh-loo), 

406. 
Rien^zi, Co^la di, 360. 
Roads, Roman, 139, 154, 

171, 176, 185. 
Robespierre (ro^-bSs-pe- 

air), 477, 478. 
Roger of Hoveden, 328. 
Rollo, 297, 303, 



554 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 



Roman Republic, mod- 
ern, 479, 52G. 

Roses, wars of, 352. 

Rouma^nia, 505. 

Rousseau (roo-so^),453 ; 
extracts from, 471. 

Royal Society, 457. 

Ru^bicon, 185. 

Rudolf of Hapsburg, 
343. 

Rys^wick, peace of, 
441. 

Sadow^a, 503, 522, 528. 
Saint (for saints, see 
respective names, as 
Ambrose, Augustine, 
etc.). 
SaPadin, 320, 324, 328. 
Salamis, 77, 78, 83, 84. 
SaFlust, 176. 
SaKvian, 240 ; extracts 

from, 248. 
Samnite war, 138, 139. 
San Stefan^o, peace of, 

505. 
Sappho (saf^o), 52. 
Sardanapa^lus, 17. 
Sardinia, 152, 155, 442, 

443. 
Savonaro^la, 365. 
Savoy, 442, 478. 
Saxons, 255. 
Saxon Heptarchy, 298. 
Schism of the Church, 

293. 
Schism of the West, 

344. 
Schleswig-Holstein 

(h51-stine), 602, 503. 
Scholasticism, 303, 327. 
Scipios (sip^ioze), 155, 
161, 163, 164. 



Scotland, 350, 351 ; 

united with England, 

450. 
Sedan^ 504. 
Seleuc^idae, 121, 126. 
Sen^ac, 299. 
Senate, French, Greek, 

etc., see Constitutions 
Sen^eca, 208. 
Senna«h^erib, 17. 
Sensationalists, Erench 

454; extracts from, 

472. 
Septim^ius Seve^rus, 

203. 
Septu^agint, 126. 
Servia, 505. 
Servius Tullius, 132. 
Sesos^tris, 6. 
Seven Years' war, 444. 
Sicily, 152-154, 181,182, 

293,322,343,404,443. 
Sicilies, the Two, 344, 

403, 443. 
Sido^nius, ApoUina^ris, 

St., 240. 
Silesia, 444. 
Simeon StyFites, St., 

240. 
Simon^ides, 100. 
Simon of Montfort, 323, 

357. 
Simon (see'mon), St., 

extracts from, 534. 
Sistine (sis^teen)Chapel, 

412. 
Sco^pas, 100. 
Slaves, in antiquity, 48, 
130,167,170,171,173, 

244 ; Teutonic, 225, 

226 ; medieval, 268, 
270; modern, 404, 442, 
458, 509, 510. 



Slavs, 227, 294. 
Sleswig, 294. 
Smith, Adam, 452. 
Sobies^ki, 441. 
Social war, 171. 
Socialism, 507, 508, 523, 

534-539. 
Socialist Laborer Party, 

536. 
Soc^rates, 100; extracts 

from, 107-110. 
Solemn League and 

Covenant, 409, 436, 

448. 
Solferino, 503, 527. 
So^on, 52, 54, 63, 143. 
Sophist, 97, 114. 
Soph^ocles, 100. 
Sozom^en, 240. 
Spain, 155, 157. 
S})anish Armada, 405, 

428. 
Spanish Succession, 

war of, 441, 442. 
" Spectator," 453. 
Spenser, Edmund, 410. 
Sphynx, 5. 
Spino^za, 454. 
Spires, diet of, 399. 
States-general, 336, 346, 

406, 466, 475. 
Stein (stine), 487-490. 
Stfisi-eho^rus, 52. 
StiFicho, 233, 240. 
Stoicism, 203, 206, 217. 
Strasbourg, 234, 440, 

441. 
Strate^gi, 70. 
Stuarts, 408, 442. 
Sueton^ius, 210. 
Sulla, 171, 172, 173, 176, 

180, 183. 
Switzerland, 343, 40L 



INDEX. 



555 



Taborites, 344. 
Tacitus, 210 ; extracts 

from, 213, 222. 
Templars, 329. 
Ter^ence, 163. 
Terpan^der, 52. 
TertuKlian, 211. 
Test act, 448, 510. 
Teutonic Knights, 329, 

352. 
Tha^les, 52. 
Thanes, 291. 
Thebes (theebz), 5, 86. 
Tliemis''tocles, 77, 78, 

83, 89, 100. 
Theod''6ric the Great, 

258, 260, 267. 
Theod5'sius, 232, 239, 

246. 
Theodosian code, 243, 

268. 
Theoc^ritus, 126. 
Thermop^ylae, 80, 83. 
Thes'pis, 52. 
Third estate (see 

Estates). 
Thirty Tyrants, 114. 
Thirty Years' war, 400. 
Thugs, 510. 
Thucyd^ides, 100. 
Tiberius Casar, 196. 
Titus, 196. 
Tiglath-Pile^ser, 17 ; 

extract from, 18. 
Tilsit, peace of, 481, 486. 
Tours (toor), battle of, 

254. 
Towns (charters), 340, 

341. 
Trafalgar^ 481. 
Trajan, 199, 216, 217. 
Transubstantiation, 304, 

425, 426. 



Trasime'nC, 159. 

Trebo'nian, 251, 260. 

Tribunes, 135, 136. 

Triple Alliance, 440. 

Triumvirate, first, 174. 

Trojan war, 35. 

Troubadours (troo^-bii- 
doors), 367. 

Trouveres (troovairs^), 
367. 

Troy, 35, 119, 212. 

" Truce of God," 298. 

Tudor, 352. 

Tuileries (twee^leree), 
414. 

Turks, 293, 296, 345, 399, 
441, 443, 445, 501. 

Turco-Russian war, 505. 

Turgot (toorgo^), 465. 

Turn-vereine (fe-rin^- 
eh), 489. 

Turpin's Chronicle, 329. 

Twelve Tables (see Ro- 
man law). 

Tyrtae^us, 52. 

Tyler, Wat, 360. 

Tyrants, Greek, 50, 73. 

Tyre, 23, 24, 27. 

UFfilas, 239. 

IJKpian, 211. 

Ultramon^tanists, 523, 

United Provinces of 
Netherlands, 401, 

Universities, 366, 414 ; 
Bologna, 366 ; Ger- 
man, 501, 515, 518; 
of Paris, 366. 

Utrecht (utrekt^, 
treaty of, 442. 

Vandals, 2.33. 
Vandyck^ 414. 



van Eycks (Iks), 365. 

Var^ro, 176. 

Venice and ^^enetians, 

234, .320, 3.34, 403, 478, 

504, 526, 527. 
Versailles (versalz), 

458 ; convention of, 

504, 
Vespa^sian, 197. 
Vico (vee^koj, 455. 
Victor Emmanuel, 526- 

531. 
Villafran^ca, 503, 527. 
Villahis, 289. 
Villehardouin (vel-ar- 

doo-an^), 357. 
Vinci, Leonardo da 

(la-on-ard^o da vin^- 

chee), 412. 
Virgil, 122, 208; extracts 

from, 212. 
Visigoths, 23.3,235,250, 
Vitru^vius, 208. 
Voltaire^ 452, 454, 464 ; 

extracts from, 471. 

Wace (vas), 328. 
Wager of battle, 380. 
Wa^gram, 481. 
Waldenses (wall-den^- 

ses), 322. 
Wales, 350. 
Wallace, Sir William, 

350, 361. 
WalTenstein, 400. 
" War of Liberation," 

483, 490. 
Wartburg festival, 515. 
Waterloo, 483. 
Wesleys, 458. 
Westphalia, treaty of, 

401. 
Whitehall, 414, 



556 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



Wiclif, 351, 361 ; ex- 
tracts from, 385. 

Wilberforce, 458. 

William the Conqueror, 
291, 299, 305. 

William of Jumieges 
(zhoo-mi-azh^), 305. 

William and Mary, 450. 

William of Orange, 405. 



William of Poitiers, 305. 
Wit^enagemot, 291. 
Wolsey, 407. 
Worcester, 447. 
Worms, diet of, 399. 

Xenoph^anes, 52. 
Xen^ophon, 100. 
Xerxes, 77-81. 



York, House of, 352 

Za^ma, 155. 

Za^ra, 320. 

Zos^imus, 240 ; extracts 

from, 248. 
Zwingli (tswing^leej, 

399. 



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